Human Health Toxicity Research Articles

Modeling the impact of pesticide drift deposition on off-field non-target receptors

Pesticide application can result in residue drift deposition in off-field areas, which can be harmful to non-target organisms inhabiting adjacent off-field environments. In order to comprehend the impact of pesticide drift deposition on off-field non-target organisms, an integrated modeling approach was incorporated into the life cycle analysis perspective for the assessment of their exposure to pesticide residues and the characterization of their human toxicity and ecotoxicity potentials. The modeling assumption comprises four modeling scenarios: children & cattle & sensitive crops (tomatoes) based on exposure assessment, and the continent-scale human health toxicity & ecotoxicity under a life cycle analysis perspective. The simulation results for the nearby off-field exposure scenario revealed that pesticide dissipation kinetics in environments and drift deposition type were two important factors influencing non-target organisms' exposure to pesticide residues deposited in off-field environments. The continental scenario simulated via USEtox revealed that considering off-field drift deposition resulted in lower simulated human toxicity potentials of pesticides when compared to simulation results that did not consider drift deposition, given that pesticide residues remaining within the treated field contributed the most to overall human exposure. Taking drift deposition into account, on the other hand, could result in higher or lower simulated ecotoxicity potentials of pesticides than not taking drift deposition in off-field areas into account, depending on the physicochemical properties of pesticides. The proposed modeling approach, which is adaptable to drift deposition types and chemical species, can aid in investigating the off-field impacts of pesticide residues. Future research will incorporate spatiotemporal factors to characterize region-specific drift deposition functions and pesticide fate in off-field environments to conduct site-specific impact assessments.

Microplastic: Characteristics, exposure pathways, toxicity, and implication for human health

Microplastics particles ranging from 1 µm to 5 mm, have gained attention for their omnipresence in marine environments and potential health risks. Initially recognized in the 1990s, microplastics are classified as primary (designed for microscopic dimensions) or secondary (resulting from degradation). Exposure pathways include ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact, with sources ranging from food and beverages to personal care products. These particles possess unique properties, facilitating their interaction with organic contaminants and potential bioaccumulation in marine life. Their small size allows them to infiltrate ecosystems, raising concerns about their impacts on human health. Studies suggest associations between microplastic exposure and health issues such as inflammatory bowel disease and neurodevelopmental. Microplastics exhibit toxicity through mechanisms like oxidative stress induction and disruption of neurotransmitter levels. They have been detected in human tissues, including the brain, raising concerns about potential neurological impacts. To comprehend the effects on health over time, additional research is required, including biopersistence and tissue accumulation. Regulatory measures and consumer awareness initiatives are crucial to mitigate microplastic pollution and minimize health risks. Strategies to reduce plastic production, enhance recycling, and develop microplastic removal technologies are vital for protecting both human health and the environment. In summary, microplastics pose significant health risks due to their widespread presence and potential toxicity. Understanding their impacts and implementing effective mitigation strategies are essential for safeguarding human health and environmental integrity.

Cadmium Exposure: Mechanisms and Pathways of Toxicity and Implications for Human Health.

Cadmium (Cd), a prevalent environmental contaminant, exerts widespread toxic effects on human health through various biochemical and molecular mechanisms. This review encapsulates the primary pathways through which Cd inflicts damage, including oxidative stress induction, disruption of Ca2+ signaling, interference with cellular signaling pathways, and epigenetic modifications. By detailing the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of Cd, alongside its interactions with cellular components such as mitochondria and DNA, this paper highlights the extensive damage caused by Cd2+ at the cellular and tissue levels. The role of Cd in inducing oxidative stress-a pivotal mechanism behind its toxicity-is discussed with emphasis on how it disrupts the balance between oxidants and antioxidants, leading to cellular damage and apoptosis. Additionally, the review covers Cd's impact on signaling pathways like Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK), Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), and Tumor Protein 53 (p53) pathways, illustrating how its interference with these pathways contributes to pathological conditions and carcinogenesis. The epigenetic effects of Cd, including DNA methylation and histone modifications, are also explored to explain its long-term impact on gene expression and disease manifestation. This comprehensive analysis not only elucidates the mechanisms of Cd toxicity but also underscores the critical need for enhanced strategies to mitigate its public health implications.

Prospects and Challenges of Heavy Metal Pollution Mitigation in the Bay of Bengal by Phytoremediation

Heavy metal pollution, a grave concern due to its toxicity and longevity, has reached alarming levels in some coastal areas of the Bay of Bengal. Originating from shipbreaking industries, untreated industrial wastages, agricultural residues, and anthropological sources, this pollution has become a major environmental threat. It can enter the food chain and accumulate in the human body, posing a significant risk to human health. Due to the advancement of science, many sophisticated techniques have been developed in recent years to detect heavy metals in the environment. At the same time, some techniques have also been developed to remove heavy metals from the marine environment. However, the efficacy of these techniques has some doubt. Amidst this crisis, Phytoremediation, a plant-based method, offers a beacon of hope. This review delves into the dire consequences of heavy metal pollution in seawater, human health toxicity, and the crucial role of phytoremediation in mitigating this crisis.

Zeofilters for potentially innovative sunscreen products: formulation, stability and spectroscopic studies

Exposure to both UVA and UVB radiation from the sun stands as the primary cause of skin cancers, contributing to the escalating yearly count of diagnosed cases. Sunscreen products, (i.e. organic and inorganic UV filters) have become ubiquitous in personal-care products, packaging, plastics, dyes, and many other sectors. Ideal UV filters should be photostable and dissipate the absorbed energy efficiently. However, most organic UV filters are photolabile upon protracted UV exposure, leading to the formation of photoproducts of unknown toxicity for human health and environment. The chemical environment surrounding UV filters may strongly affect their behaviour: the interaction with other components of sunscreen formulations may enhance their degradation. Particularly, the interaction between photochemically incompatible ingredients must be avoided. Therefore, much effort has been invested in developing more effective and safe sunscreens.Our team recently focused on the preparation and characterization of hybrid UVfs obtained by the encapsulation of organic UV filters into various zeolites differing for topology. The zeolite most efficient for the encapsulation of organic UV filters, in term of stability and efficiency in radiation filtration, resulted to be LTL zeolite. Here, hybrid materials realized after the encapsulation of octinoxate (OMC) and avobenzone (AVO) in LTL zeolite were tested in terms of skin permeation profiles, cytotoxicity and photostability once the materials are dispersed in cream formulations, so to mimicking the real condition of use.The results show that the hybrids were successfully incorporated into oil-in-water emulsions and the skin permeation tests displayed a very low UV filter permeation through pig skin and no UV filter accumulation in dermis layer.The photostability of the hybrid-based emulsions were compared with that of emulsions containing a mixture of bare OMC and AVO, highlighting a reduced decrease in UV screening efficiency upon irradiation for the samples containing the hybrid materials with respect to the free filters. This evidence confirms that the encapsulation in the zeolite frameworks prevents some of the photodegradation reactions. The result of this paper highlights that zeolite encapsulation is increasingly establishing as a viable way to stabilize UV filters and other photoactive molecules.

Ageing Behavior of Rubber Compounds Prepared with Different ZnO Types

Zinc oxide is considered as the most widely used activator that influences curing reaction kinetics and promotes short sulphide crosslinks to achieve higher crosslink density in rubber compounds. Besides its effect on curing process, it has beneficial effects on the physical and mechanical properties of rubber as well. However, its level should be minimized in rubber compounds because of its toxicity for human health and environment, especially on aquatic wildlife. One of the potential routes for decreasing ZnO level is to use composite ZnO materials where ZnO particles are coated. In this study, composite ZnO materials having ZnO:CaCO3 ratio as 40:60, 60:40 and 90:10 are used in SBR/BR compounds and their effects on mechanical properties under ageing conditions are investigated and compared with the conventional white seal ZnO and active ZnO types. The findings have shown that all composite materials have no negative effect on mechanical properties under ageing conditions, thus they can be used as alternative materials to conventional activators.

Dimethyl carbonate as a green alternative to acetonitrile in reversed-phase liquid chromatography. Part II: Purification of a therapeutic peptide

Preparative liquid chromatography in reversed phase conditions (RPLC) is the most common approach adopted in the downstream processing for the purification of therapeutic peptides at industrial level. Due to the strict requirements on the quality imposed by the Regulatory Agencies, routinary methods based on the use of aqueous buffers and acetonitrile (ACN) as organic modifier are commonly used, where ACN is practically the only available choice for the purification of peptide derivatives. However, ACN is known to suffers of many shortcomings, such as drastic shortage in the market, high costs and, most importantly, it shows unwanted toxicity for human health and environment, which led it among the less environmentally friendly ones. For this reason, the selection of a suitable alternative becomes crucial for the sustainable downstream processing of peptides and biopharmaceuticals in general.In this paper, a promising green solvent, namely dimethyl carbonate (DMC) has been used for the separation of a peptide not only in linear conditions but also for its purification through non-linear overloaded chromatography. The performance of the process has been compared to that achievable with the common method where ACN is used as organic modifier and to that obtained with two additional solvents (namely ethanol and isopropanol), already used as greener alternatives to ACN.This proof-of-concept study showed that, thanks to its higher elution strength, DMC can be considered a green alternative to ACN, since it allows to reduce method duration while reaching good purities and recoveries. Indeed, at a target purity fixed to 98.5 %, DMC led to the best productivity with respect to all the other solvents tested, confirming its suitability as a sustainable alternative to ACN for the purification of complex biopharmaceutical products.

Implication of the cooking oil-peroxidation product "hydroxynonenal" for Alzheimer's disease.

Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) is a mitochondrial enzyme that reduces cell injuries via detoxification of lipid-peroxidation product, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (hydroxynonenal). It is generated exogenously via deep-frying of linoleic acid-rich cooking oils and/or endogenously via oxidation of fatty acids involved in biomembranes. Although its toxicity for human health is widely accepted, the underlying mechanism long remained unknown. In 1998, Yamashima et al. have formulated the "calpain-cathepsin hypothesis" as a molecular mechanism of ischemic neuronal death. Subsequently, they found that calpain cleaves Hsp70.1 which became vulnerable after the hydroxynonenal-induced carbonylation at the key site Arg469. Since it is the pivotal aberration that induces lysosomal membrane rupture, they suggested that neuronal death in Alzheimer's disease similarly occurs by chronic ischemia via the calpain-cathepsin cascade triggered by hydroxynonenal. For nearly three decades, amyloid β (Aβ) peptide was thought to be a root substance of Alzheimer's disease. However, because of both the insignificant correlations between Aβ depositions and occurrence of neuronal death or dementia, and the negative results of anti-Aβ medicines tested so far in the patients with Alzheimer's disease, the strength of the "amyloid cascade hypothesis" has been weakened. Recent works have suggested that hydroxynonenal is a mediator of programmed cell death not only in the brain, but also in the liver, pancreas, heart, etc. Increment of hydroxynonenal was considered an early event in the development of Alzheimer's disease. This review aims at suggesting ways out of the tunnel, focusing on the implication of hydroxynonenal in this disease. Herein, the mechanism of Alzheimer neuronal death is discussed by focusing on Hsp70.1 with a dual function as chaperone protein and lysosomal stabilizer. We suggest that Aβ is not a culprit of Alzheimer's disease, but merely a byproduct of autophagy/lysosomal failure resulting from hydroxynonenal-induced Hsp70.1 disorder. Enhancing ALDH2 activity to detoxify hydroxynonenal emerges as a promising strategy for preventing and treating Alzheimer's disease.

Toxicology assessment for six per- and polyfluoroalkyl (PFAS)-free aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) products.

There is an urgent need to understand the toxicity hazards of aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) replacement products to ensure the balance between performance and toxicity hazards and avoid regrettable substitutions during the rapid phasing out of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS)-containing AFFFs. To address this need, we assessed the toxicity of six candidate PFAS-free products via literature review, estimation techniques, and incorporation of testing data from whole products and compared them against one PFAS-containing product. Then, we combined the relative hazards across human occupational exposure (e.g., concentrate, foam, or dilute exposures), human environmental exposure (e.g., training, emergency response, cleanup), and environmental exposure to aquatic, mammalian, and other terrestrial species using an index-based scoring system to quantify potential hazards across these domains. We found that most PFAS-free products in their concentrated form may cause dermal and ocular irritation, and aquatic toxicity may be a concern from direct or repeated environmental releases. Additionally, all PFAS-free AFFF products assessed contain chemicals that are notable as plausible hazards resulting from release uncertainties (e.g., concentration, release volume, release timing), but the PFAS-free AFFF products appear to have a lower likelihood of environmental persistence and bioaccumulation and to have lower oral human health toxicity than the PFAS-containing reference product. Decision makers can use this information alongside cost-benefit, sustainability, or life-cycle analyses to make a data-driven decision for the adoption of PFAS-free AFFF. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:1609-1618. © 2023 SETAC.

Biocontrol potential of wine yeasts against four grape phytopathogenic fungi disclosed by time-course monitoring of inhibitory activities.

Grapes' infection by phytopathogenic fungi may often lead to rot and impair the quality and safety of the final product. Due to the concerns associated with the extensive use of chemicals to control these fungi, including their toxicity for environment and human health, bio-based products are being highly preferred, as eco-friendlier and safer alternatives. Specifically, yeasts have shown to possess antagonistic activity against fungi, being promising for the formulation of new biocontrol products.In this work 397 wine yeasts, isolated from Portuguese wine regions, were studied for their biocontrol potential against common grapes phytopathogenic fungal genera: Aspergillus, Botrytis, Mucor and Penicillium. This set comprised strains affiliated to 32 species distributed among 20 genera. Time-course monitoring of mold growth was performed to assess the inhibitory activity resulting from either diffusible or volatile compounds produced by each yeast strain. All yeasts displayed antagonistic activity against at least one of the mold targets. Mucor was the most affected being strongly inhibited by 68% of the tested strains, followed by Botrytis (20%), Aspergillus (19%) and Penicillium (7%). More notably, the approach used allowed the detection of a wide array of yeast-induced mold response profiles encompassing, besides the decrease of mold growth, the inhibition or delay of spore germination and the complete arrest of mycelial extension, and even its stimulation at different phases. Each factor considered (taxonomic affiliation, mode of action and fungal target) as well as their interactions significantly affected the antagonistic activity of the yeast isolates. The highest inhibitions were mediated by volatile compounds. Total inhibition of Penicillium was achieved by a strain of Metschnikowia pulcherrima, while the best performing yeasts against Mucor, Aspergillus and Botrytis, belong to Lachancea thermotolerans, Hanseniaspora uvarum and Starmerella bacillaris, respectively. Notwithstanding the wide diversity of yeasts tested, only three strains were found to possess a broad spectrum of antagonistic activity, displaying strong or very strong inhibition against the four fungal targets tested. Our results confirm the potential of wine yeasts as biocontrol agents, while highlighting the need for the establishment of fit-for-purpose selection programs depending on the mold target, the timing, and the mode of application.

Glyphosate-triggered hepatocyte ferroptosis via suppressing Nrf2/GSH/GPX4 axis exacerbates hepatotoxicity

Glyphosate (GLY) exposure has been reported to damage organs in animals, in particular the liver, due to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS). Ferroptosis is defined as a new type of cell death that is characterized by the increase of ROS. The purpose of this study was to elucidate whether the relationship between ferroptosis and GLY-induced hepatotoxicity is of significance to enlarge the knowledge about GLY toxicity and consequences for human and animal health. To this end, in this study, we investigated the role of ferroptosis in GLY-induced hepatotoxicity both in vivo and in vitro. The results showed that GLY exposure triggered ferroptosis in L02 cells, but pretreatment with ferroptosis inhibitor ferrostatin (Fer-1) rescued ferroptosis-induced injury, thereby indicating that ferroptosis plays a key role in GLY-induced hepatotoxicity. Moreover, N-acetylcysteine, a glutathione (GSH) synthesis precursor, reversed GLY-triggered ferroptosis damage, thus indicating that GSH exhaustion may be a prerequisite for GLY-triggered hepatotoxicity. Mechanistically, GLY inhibited GSH biosynthesis via blocking the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Nrf2, which resulted in GSH depletion-induced hepatocyte ferroptosis. In a mouse model, GLY exposure triggered ferroptosis-induced liver damage, which can be rescued by pretreatment with Fer-1 or tBHQ (a specific agonist of Nrf2). To our knowledge, this is the first study to reveal that GLY-triggered hepatocyte ferroptosis via suppressing Nrf2/GSH/GPX4 axis exacerbates hepatotoxicity, which expands our knowledge about GLY toxicity in animal and human health.

Amino-functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles (NH2-MSiNPs) impair the embryonic development of the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus

Nanoparticles have found use in a wide range of applications, mainly as carriers of active biomolecules. It is thus necessary to assess their toxicity for human health, as well as for the environment, on which there is still a gap of knowledge. In this work, sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus, a widely used model for embryotoxicity and spermiotoxicity, has been used to assess potential detrimental effects of amino-functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles (NH2-MSiNPs) on embryonic development. Specifically, gametes quality, embryogenesis morphological and timing alterations, and cellular stress markers, such as mitochondrial functionality, were assessed in presence of different concentrations of NH2-MSiNPs in filtered seawater (FSW). Furthermore, dorsal-ventral axis development and skeletogenesis were characterized by microscopy imaging and gene expression analysis. NH2-MSiNPs determined a strong reduction in the egg fertilization rate. Consequently, the presence of NH2-MSiNPs resulted detrimental in P. lividus embryonic development, with severe morphological alterations correlated with an increased embryos mortality. Finally, NH2-MSiNPs treatment was responsible for other toxic effects, such as reduced mitochondrial function and skeletogenesis alterations, according to the reduced mineralization sites in the endoskeleton formation and the related genes altered expression. Taken together, these results suggest the potential toxic effects of NH2-MSiNPs on the marine ecosystem, with consequences for the development and reproduction of its organisms. Despite their promising potential as carriers of biomolecules, it is pivotal to consider that their uncontrolled use may result harmful to the environment and, consequently, to living organisms.

Sustainable Production of Rare Earth Elements from Mine Waste and Geoethics

The vulnerability of the rare earth element (REE) supply in a global context of increasing demands entails important economic and political issues, and has encouraged several countries to develop their own REE production projects. This study comparatively evaluated the production of REEs from primary and secondary resources in terms of their sustainability and contribution to the achievement of the Geoethics concept as responsibility towards oneself, colleagues, society, and the Earth system. Twelve categories of potential environmental and social impacts were selected: human health toxicity, global warming or climate change, terrestrial and aquatic eutrophication, acidification potential, particulate matter, resource depletion, water consumption, fresh water ecotoxicity, ionizing radiation, fossil fuel consumption, and ozone depletion. The results showed that the environmental impact of REE production from secondary sources is much lower relative to primary sources. A comparison of conventional and non-conventional REE resources showed that significant impact categories were related to particulate matter formation, abiotic resource depletion, and fossil fuel depletion, which could result from avoiding the tailings disposal before reuse. Based on these findings, governments and stakeholders should be encouraged to increase the recycling of secondary REE sources with Geoethics in mind, in order to balance the high demand of REEs while minimizing the overexploitation of non-renewable resources.

Rethinking our chemical legacy and reclaiming our planet

Rethinking our chemical legacy and reclaiming our planet

Life cycle assessment for the milling operation of titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V)

There is a growing interest in titanium alloy for medical, aerospace, biomedical, automotive and rail applications due to its desirable properties such as its high strength to weight ratio and corrosion resistance ability. However, its low thermal conductivity can affect the energy consumption and rate of material removal thereby affecting the overall sustainability of the cutting operation. Hence, this study employs the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) model for the investigation of the midpoint and endpoint characteristics of the milling operation of titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) under the cooling and non-cooling conditions. The input and output of the milling process serve as the life cycle inventory. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was carried out with the aid of the Umberto NXT universal with database Eco-invent version 3.0. (CML 2001 and Impact 2002+ valuation standards). For the mid-point assessment, the results obtained indicate that the ozone layer depletion and global warming potential were the most significantly impacted potentials during the milling operation. However, the potential impacts were more significant under the cutting operation without cooling. The endpoint assessment for a cutting operation with cooling, contributes 15%, 12% and 9% to the global warming, eco system and human health toxicity respectively. The cutting operation without cooling contributes 18%, 16% and 9% to the global warming, eco system and human health toxicity respectively. This study provides an insight into the sustainability of titanium alloy during the milling process in terms of the energy requirements and environmental friendliness of the process.

Combined omics approaches reveal distinct responses between light and heavy rare earth elements in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The rapid development of green energy sources and new medical technologies contributes to the increased exploitation of rare earth elements (REEs). They can be subdivided into light (LREEs) and heavy (HREEs) REEs. Mining, industrial processing, and end-use practices of REEs has led to elevated environmental concentrations and raises concerns about their toxicity to organisms and their impact on ecosystems. REE toxicity has been reported, but its precise underlying molecular effects have not been well described. Here, transcriptomic and proteomic approaches were combined to decipher the molecular responses of the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae to La (LREE) and Yb (HREE). Differences were observed between the early and late responses to La and Yb. Several crucial pathways were modulated in response to both REEs, such as oxidative-reduction processes, DNA replication, and carbohydrate metabolism. REE-specific responses involving the cell wall and pheromone signalling pathways were identified, and these responses have not been reported for other metals. REE exposure also modified the expression and abundance of several ion transport systems, with strong discrepancies between La and Yb. These findings are valuable for prioritizing key genes and proteins involved in La and Yb detoxification mechanisms that deserve further characterization to better understand REE environmental and human health toxicity.

Glyphosate Use, Toxicity and Occurrence in Food.

Glyphosate is a systemic, broad-spectrum and post-emergent herbicide. The use of glyphosate has grown in the last decades, and it is currently the most used herbicide worldwide. The rise of glyphosate consumption over the years also brought an increased concern about its possible toxicity and consequences for human health. However, a scientific community consensus does not exist at the present time, and glyphosate’s safety and health consequences are controversial. Since glyphosate is mainly applied in fields and can persist several months in the soil, concerns have been raised about the impact that its presence in food can cause in humans. Therefore, this work aims to review the glyphosate use, toxicity and occurrence in diverse food samples, which, in certain cases, occurs at violative levels. The incidence of glyphosate at levels above those legally allowed and the suspected toxic effects of this compound raise awareness regarding public health.

The critical issue of using lead for sustainable massive production of perovskite solar cells: a review of relevant literature.

This work aims to review the most significant studies dealing with the environmental issues of the use of lead in perovskite solar cells (PSCs). A careful discussion and rationalization of the environmental and human health toxicity impacts, evaluated by life cycle assessment and risk assessment studies, is presented. The results of this analysis are prospectively related to the possible future massive production of PSC technology.

Costs to Reduce the Human Health Toxicity of Biogas Engine Emissions

The anaerobic digestion of biodegradable substrates and waste is a well-known process that can be used worldwide to produce a renewable fuel called biogas. At the time of writing, the most widespread way of using biogas is its direct usage in combined heat and power internal combustion engines (CHP-ICEs) to generate electricity and heat. However, the combustion process generates emissions, which in turn have an impact on human health. Therefore, there is a need to: (i) measure the ICE emissions (both regulated and unregulated), (ii) compute the impact on human health, (iii) identify the substances with the highest impact and (iv) calculate the avoided damage to human health per Euro of investment in technology able to abate the specific type of pollutant. To this end, the authors conducted an experimental campaign and selected as a test case a 999 kWel biogas internal combustion engine. Then, the collected data, which included both regulated and unregulated emissions, were used to calculate the harmfulness to human health and identify the more impactful compounds. Thus, combining the results of the impact analysis on human health and the outcomes of a market analysis, the avoided damage to human health per Euro of investment in an abatement technology was computed. In this manner, a single parameter, expressed in DALY €−1, provided clear information on the costs to reduce each disability-adjusted life year (DALY). The impact analysis on human health, which was performed using the Health Impact Assessment, showed that NOx was the main contributor to damage to human health (approximately 91% of the total), followed by SOx (6.5%), volatile organic compounds (1.4%) and CO (0.7%). Starting from these outcomes, the performed investigation showed that the technology that guarantees the maximum damage reduction per unit of cost is the denitrification system or the oxidizing converter, depending on whether the considered plant is already in-operation or newly built. This is an unexpected conclusion considering that the most impacting emission is the NOx.

Recent developments of natural antimicrobials and antioxidants on fish and fishery food products.

Fish and fishery products (FFP) are highly perishable due to their high nutritional value and moisture content. The spoilage is mainly caused by microorganisms and chemical reactions, especially lipid oxidation, leading to losses in quality and market value. Microbiological and lipid deteriorations of fishery-derived products directly lower their nutritive value and pose the risk of toxicity for human health. Increasing demand for safe FFP brings about the preservation using additives from natural origins without chemical additives due to their safety and strict regulation. Antimicrobials and antioxidants from natural sources have exhibited an excellent control over the growth of microorganisms causing fish spoilage via different mechanisms. They also play a major role in retarding lipid oxidation by acting at various stages of oxidation. Antimicrobials and antioxidants from natural sources are usually regarded as safe with no detrimental effects on the quality attributes of FFP. This review provides recent literature on the different antioxidant and antimicrobial agents from natural sources, focusing on microbial and oxidative spoilage mechanisms, their inhibition system, and their applications to retard spoilage, maintain safety, and extend the shelf life of FFP. Their applications and benefits have been revisited.