Tourist Spending Research Articles

Can Business and Leisure Tourism Spending Lead to Lower Environmental Degradation Levels? Research on the Eurozone Economic Space

This study aims to investigate the impacts and identify the causal links between tourism expansion and the environment among countries of the Eurozone from 1996 to 2019 in the context of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC). To achieve this end, we used a new set of untested tourism proxies when elaborating the EKC. We disaggregated the tourism phenomenon and highlighted its heterogenous nature by including specific and high-impact market segments such as business and leisure tourism spending as well as capital investment spending. The research findings indicate the pivotal role that tourism proxies have on environmental degradation in terms of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs). Specifically, the identified reciprocal causalities between leisure and investment spending and environmental degradation suggest some complementarities between these variables. In the case of business tourism spending, an increase (decrease) in this variable leads to an increase (decrease) in environmental degradation. The last two feedback hypotheses indicate that the primary and final energy consumption Granger cause GHGs and vice versa. Such a result offers evidence for incorporating the concept of energy efficiency in tourism. Practical implications should motivate supply and demand dimensions within the tourism system to improve efficiency in tourism flow management. The supply side should transfer the environmental message to visitors to spend wisely and consume smarter, whereas the demand side should perform pro-environmental behavior by spending wisely and acting responsibly at destinations.

Opening of hotels and ski facilities: Impact on mobility, spending, and Covid-19 outcomes.

This paper investigates how reopening hotels and ski facilities in Poland impacted tourism spending, mobility, and COVID-19 outcomes. We used administrative data from a government program that subsidizes travel to show that the policy increased the consumption of tourism services in ski resorts. By leveraging geolocation data from Facebook, we showed that ski resorts experienced a significant influx of tourists, increasing the number of local users by up to 50%. Furthermore, we confirmed an increase in the probability of meetings between pairs of users from distanced locations and users from tourist and non-tourist areas. As the policy impacted travel and gatherings, we then analyzed its effect on the diffusion of COVID-19. We found that counties with ski facilities experienced more infections after the reopening. Moreover, counties strongly connected to the ski resorts during the reopening had more subsequent cases than weakly connected counties.

The Impact of Hygiene Factors on Online Hotel Consumption in China during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic, with its risk of repeated fluctuations, has shifted the basis for decisions on tourism spending. Thus, it is crucial for the hospitality industry to understand the factors that influence accommodation consumption. Grounded in signaling theory, our empirical analysis is based on analyzing data from eLong on 7209 Chinese hotels using binary logistic regression and the ordinary least squares method (OLS). The main findings are as follows: (1) completeness of information, online hygiene rating and hygiene recommendation tags have a significant impact on hotel consumption; (2) online hygiene rating has a positively significant moderating effect on the relationship between information completeness and hotel sales; and (3) there is variability in the factors that influence the generation and growth of hotel sales. In addition, we discuss the role of online travel agencies (OTAs) and provide relevant advice for practitioners.

UNWTO World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, January 2023

International tourism recovered 63% of pre-pandemic levels in 2022, with Europe and Middle East in the lead International tourism saw stronger than expected results in 2022, backed by large pent-up demand and the lifting or relaxation of travel restrictions in a large number of countries. Over 900 million tourists travelled internationally in 2022, double those in 2021 though still 37% fewer than in 2019. International tourism recovered 63% of pre-pandemic levels, in line with UNWTO’s scenarios published in May 2022. Europe, the world’s largest destination region, recorded 585 million arrivals in 2022 to reach nearly 80% of pre-pandemic levels (-21% over 2019). The Middle East enjoyed the strongest relative increase across regions in 2022 with arrivals climbing to 83% of pre-pandemic numbers (-17% versus 2019). Africa and the Americas both recovered about 65% of its pre-pandemic visitors, while Asia and the Pacific reached only 23%, due to stronger pandemic-related restrictions. By subregions, Western Europe (87%) and the Caribbean (84%) came closest to their pre-pandemic levels. The year 2022 saw a strong rebound in tourism spending, resulting in the recovery of pre-pandemic levels in income across many destinations. Looking ahead, international tourism is set to consolidate its recovery in 2023, backed by pent-up demand, particularly from Asia and the Pacific as destinations and markets open up. The UNWTO Panel of Experts survey indicates that 72% of respondents expect better performance in 2023. However, most experts (65%) also believe international tourism will not return to 2019 levels until 2024 or later. Based on UNWTO’s scenarios for 2023, international tourist arrivals could reach 80% to 95% of pre-pandemic levels this year, with Europe and the Middle East expected to reach those levels. However, important risks remain ahead, especially economic and geopolitical. Tourists are expected to increasingly seek value for money and travel close to home in response to the challenging economic environment.

Baromètre OMT du tourisme mondial et annexe statistique, janvier 2022

International tourism recovered 63% of pre-pandemic levels in 2022, with Europe and Middle East in the lead International tourism saw stronger than expected results in 2022, backed by large pent-up demand and the lifting or relaxation of travel restrictions in a large number of countries. Over 900 million tourists travelled internationally in 2022, double those in 2021 though still 37% fewer than in 2019. International tourism recovered 63% of pre-pandemic levels, in line with UNWTO’s scenarios published in May 2022. Europe, the world’s largest destination region, recorded 585 million arrivals in 2022 to reach nearly 80% of pre-pandemic levels (-21% over 2019). The Middle East enjoyed the strongest relative increase across regions in 2022 with arrivals climbing to 83% of pre-pandemic numbers (-17% versus 2019). Africa and the Americas both recovered about 65% of its pre-pandemic visitors, while Asia and the Pacific reached only 23%, due to stronger pandemic-related restrictions. By subregions, Western Europe (87%) and the Caribbean (84%) came closest to their pre-pandemic levels. The year 2022 saw a strong rebound in tourism spending, resulting in the recovery of pre-pandemic levels in income across many destinations. Looking ahead, international tourism is set to consolidate its recovery in 2023, backed by pent-up demand, particularly from Asia and the Pacific as destinations and markets open up. The UNWTO Panel of Experts survey indicates that 72% of respondents expect better performance in 2023. However, most experts (65%) also believe international tourism will not return to 2019 levels until 2024 or later. Based on UNWTO’s scenarios for 2023, international tourist arrivals could reach 80% to 95% of pre-pandemic levels this year, with Europe and the Middle East expected to reach those levels. However, important risks remain ahead, especially economic and geopolitical. Tourists are expected to increasingly seek value for money and travel close to home in response to the challenging economic environment.

IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON TOURIST SPENDING BEHAVIOR IN THAILAND

While there are several research studies that focused on finding out how the COVID-19 outbreak has affected the travel and tourism sector, very few of them focus on how the pandemic has affected changes in tourists' spending patterns. As we, all know COVID-19 left the world’s economy with a huge downstream, although governments are trying to help businesses, and the population, there is a huge decrease in income, and shortages of jobs. 
 With low income, people are not going out or traveling, as frequently as before, although everyone is wishing to since it was impossible to travel for more than 2 years.
 This study is focused on analyzing COVID-19 impact on the way people spend their money on traveling in the famous touristic country, Thailand. The year 2021 is the emphasis of this study’s time frame. The major findings of this study are that age and occupation have a significant role in tourist spending and that people would plan more traveling before COVID-19, than after COVID-19. Food and beverages are the most allocated spending of tourists and Bangkok is the most visited destination, despite being highly populated, which means with a high possibility of getting infected somehow. We wish and hope that the world can go back to old normal and travel without fear, restrictions and comfortably.

The Golden Billion of World Tourism: Inflation and Exchange Rate in the Dynamics of Tourist Spending

The Golden Billion of World Tourism: Inflation and Exchange Rate in the Dynamics of Tourist Spending

Is tourism growth a power of environmental‘de -degradation’? An empirical analysis for Eurozone economic space

The present study aims to investigate potential causality relationships between environmental quality, energy efficiency, and economy when testing the validity of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis. To this effort, panel data analysis concerning Eurozone member states is put into the process for the period 1996–2019. We conceptualize environmental degradation in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, energy efficiency in terms of energy consumption, and the economy concerning a nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). We include additional tourism indicators in terms of the direct contribution of tourism to GDP and tourism key market segments when testing the hypothesis of EKC. Scarcely in literature, we find empirical research that investigates the heterogeneous nature of tourism in the context of business tourism spending and leisure tourism spending, and the environment. This is an essential question, which seeks ways to optimize human and technical resources and processes, sectoral and organizational, to establish sustainability within the economy. This suggests that a potential gap in the literature might exist. We process contemporary panel regression tests that consider possible structural breaks and cross-section dependence phenomena across panel data. Empirical findings confirm the EKC hypothesis whereas business tourism spending, capital investment spending, and internal travel and tourism consumption negatively impact GHG emissions. Furthermore, Granger non-causality tests suggest that all variables Granger cause GHG emissions. Practical implications call for establishing sustainable energy consumption and tourism spending patterns in the long run.

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The article is devoted to topical issues of restoration and renewal of the processes of operation of tourist enterprises on the market. The content of the restoration of the activity of tourist enterprises in the difficult conditions of the continuation of military operations is considered, it is emphasized that the market of tourist services is formed, restored, developed and produces the appearance of new types of tourism in the relevant territory thanks to various acts of reproduction and renewal in this space. It is shown that the field of tourism itself in peacetime is a factor in changing the competitive strategy of the economy and regional development of Ukraine. Methods. The aim of the article is to substantiate the theoretical, methodological and practical aspects of cruise tourism, study its state, reveal its role in ensuring sustainable development and provide practical recommendations for further growth of the potential of the cruise industry. Results. The questions of the economic and financial revival of the tourism sphere and the birth of new types and methods of travel and recreation are revealed. It is emphasized the need to modernize tourism, update the methods and principles of management of tourist and infrastructure resources, taking into account the conditions of modern challenges, threats and the introduction of digitalization as a management tool, improvement of tourist business processes. Scientific novelty. The key aspects of the impact of digitalization on the development of the economy and tourism in modern conditions are considered. It is proved that ensuring the modernization of types of tourism, as a component of the competitive strategy of the economy in Ukraine, must be carried out by identifying new sources of financial income, establishing an effective connection between the needs of the market of tourist services and sectors of the tourism industry, increasing the efficiency and influence of modern Ukrainian tourism on the gross domestic product due to tourism spending. Practical significance. Given the specificity of tourism and its importance in the national and regional economy, as well as the fact that this sector of the economy covers almost all sectors of the economy and stimulates their development, it is important to determine the competitive advantages that form new species in the tourism industry. The article highlights the most important factors in the development of types of tourism in the post-war period, the economic growth of both branches and enterprises of the tourism industry, and the country as a whole, and the prospects for the development of certain types of cruise business in Ukraine are determined. Key words: tourism sphere, tourism development, types of tourism, tourism modernization, competitive strategies, solidarity tourism, development factors.

Knowledge and Technological Innovations in the Context of Tourists' Spending in OECD Countries

Tourism is one of those segments where the effect of implemented innovations tends to show relatively quickly. The presented study aims to assess the links between knowledge and technological innovation and tourists' spending in a sample of developed countries. To this end, the research relied on annual data (2010-2019) from selected OECD countries (n = 36). Data presenting the innovation potential (Knowledge & technology Global Innovation Index) of selected countries (knowledge creation, impact of knowledge, and knowledge diffusion) was included in the analyzes. Four indicators represented tourism: Business Tourism Spending, Leisure Tourism Spending, Domestic Tourism Spending, Visitor Exports - Foreign spending. The panel regression analysis showed that demonstrable links were proved only for some assumptions, while the identified effects acquired negative trajectories, i.e., in countries where higher tourist spending was identified, lower outputs of innovation activities in the examined areas can be expected. In addition, significant negative links were discovered between the indicators of the creation of knowledge and visitor exports, as well as the dissemination of knowledge and domestic tourism spending. For more accurate results, further analyzes and examinations of interconnections in a different country structure are needed.

UNWTO World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, November 2022

International tourism on track to reach 65% of pre-pandemic levels by the end of 2022 International tourism showed robust performance in January-September 2022, with arrivals reaching 63% of pre-pandemic levels in the first nine months of 2022. An estimated 700 million tourists travelled internationally between January and September, more than double (+133%) the number recorded in the same period of 2021. Results were boosted by strong pent-up demand, improved confidence levels and the lifting of restrictions in an increasing number of destinations. Monthly arrivals climbed from -64% in January 2022 (versus 2019) to -27% in September, confirming the rapid and sustained recovery of international travel throughout the year. Tourism performance was particularly strong in the third quarter of 2022 (-26% over 2019) when an estimated 340 million international arrivals were recorded around the world, almost 50% of the nine-month total. Europe (+126%) continued to lead the rebound of international tourism through September, reaching 81% of pre-pandemic levels. The Middle East saw international arrivals more than triple (+225%) year-on-year in January-September 2022, climbing to 77% of 2019 levels. Africa (+166%) and the Americas (+106%) reached 63% and 66% of 2019 levels respectively. In Asia and the Pacific (+230%) arrivals more than tripled in the first nine months of 2022, reflecting the opening of many destinations, though remained 83% below 2019 levels. The recovery can also be seen in outbound tourism spending from major source markets, with strong results from France and Germany, where expenditure reached -8% and -12% respectively through September, compared to 2019. International arrivals could reach 65% of pre-pandemic levels in 2022, in line with UNWTO’s initial scenarios. Despite growing challenges pointing to a softening of the recovery pace in the coming months, export revenues from tourism could reach USD 1.2 to 1.3 trillion in 2022, a 60-70% increase over 2021, or 70-80% of the USD 1.8 trillion recorded in 2019.

Barómetro OMT del Turismo Mundial y anexo estadístico, noviembre 2022

La traducción sólo cubre el anexo estadístico. Los otros capítulos se publican en el idioma original (inglés). International tourism on track to reach 65% of pre-pandemic levels by the end of 2022 International tourism showed robust performance in January-September 2022, with arrivals reaching 63% of pre-pandemic levels in the first nine months of 2022. An estimated 700 million tourists travelled internationally between January and September, more than double (+133%) the number recorded in the same period of 2021. Results were boosted by strong pent-up demand, improved confidence levels and the lifting of restrictions in an increasing number of destinations. Monthly arrivals climbed from -64% in January 2022 (versus 2019) to -27% in September, confirming the rapid and sustained recovery of international travel throughout the year. Tourism performance was particularly strong in the third quarter of 2022 (-26% over 2019) when an estimated 340 million international arrivals were recorded around the world, almost 50% of the nine-month total. Europe (+126%) continued to lead the rebound of international tourism through September, reaching 81% of pre-pandemic levels. The Middle East saw international arrivals more than triple (+225%) year-on-year in January-September 2022, climbing to 77% of 2019 levels. Africa (+166%) and the Americas (+106%) reached 63% and 66% of 2019 levels respectively. In Asia and the Pacific (+230%) arrivals more than tripled in the first nine months of 2022, reflecting the opening of many destinations, though remained 83% below 2019 levels. The recovery can also be seen in outbound tourism spending from major source markets, with strong results from France and Germany, where expenditure reached -8% and -12% respectively through September, compared to 2019. International arrivals could reach 65% of pre-pandemic levels in 2022, in line with UNWTO’s initial scenarios. Despite growing challenges pointing to a softening of the recovery pace in the coming months, export revenues from tourism could reach USD 1.2 to 1.3 trillion in 2022, a 60-70% increase over 2021, or 70-80% of the USD 1.8 trillion recorded in 2019.

Baromètre OMT du tourisme mondial et annexe statistique, novembre 2022

Seuls les principaux chapitres de la publication ont été traduits. Le reste de la publication figure dans la langue originale (Anglais). International tourism on track to reach 65% of pre-pandemic levels by the end of 2022 International tourism showed robust performance in January-September 2022, with arrivals reaching 63% of pre-pandemic levels in the first nine months of 2022. An estimated 700 million tourists travelled internationally between January and September, more than double (+133%) the number recorded in the same period of 2021. Results were boosted by strong pent-up demand, improved confidence levels and the lifting of restrictions in an increasing number of destinations. Monthly arrivals climbed from -64% in January 2022 (versus 2019) to -27% in September, confirming the rapid and sustained recovery of international travel throughout the year. Tourism performance was particularly strong in the third quarter of 2022 (-26% over 2019) when an estimated 340 million international arrivals were recorded around the world, almost 50% of the nine-month total. Europe (+126%) continued to lead the rebound of international tourism through September, reaching 81% of pre-pandemic levels. The Middle East saw international arrivals more than triple (+225%) year-on-year in January-September 2022, climbing to 77% of 2019 levels. Africa (+166%) and the Americas (+106%) reached 63% and 66% of 2019 levels respectively. In Asia and the Pacific (+230%) arrivals more than tripled in the first nine months of 2022, reflecting the opening of many destinations, though remained 83% below 2019 levels. The recovery can also be seen in outbound tourism spending from major source markets, with strong results from France and Germany, where expenditure reached -8% and -12% respectively through September, compared to 2019. International arrivals could reach 65% of pre-pandemic levels in 2022, in line with UNWTO’s initial scenarios. Despite growing challenges pointing to a softening of the recovery pace in the coming months, export revenues from tourism could reach USD 1.2 to 1.3 trillion in 2022, a 60-70% increase over 2021, or 70-80% of the USD 1.8 trillion recorded in 2019.

Economic impacts of COVID-19 on inbound and domestic tourism

COVID-19 has led to an unprecedented disruption in tourism spending. This has propagated through the whole economy, however the scale of these system-wide consequences can be hard to quantify. We calculate direct reductions in spending across domestic and inbound tourism categories and then use a computable general equilibrium model to quantify their economic impacts. The results – illustrated using a model for Scotland and focusing on 2021 - demonstrate the scale of the losses in the tourism industry and the economy as a whole that are attributable to changes in both domestic and inbound tourism demand. We find that the extent to which domestic tourism demand can mitigate the losses in inbound spending depends on the composition of demand.

How consumer confidence is reshaping the outbound tourism expenditure in China? A lesson for strategy makers!

Tourism is a rapidly rising sector that contributes significantly to economies. In this paper, we apply a bootstrap full-sample causality test, parameter stability test, and quantile-on-quantile approach test so as to examine the relationship between consumer confidence index (CCI) and outward tourism expenditure (OTE) for the period between 1998:Q1 to 2021:Q4. The results of the findings reflect that CCI tends to exert a positive impact on the OTE in most of the quantiles. This essentially implies that consumer confidence in China can act as a compound for outbound tourism expenditure in nature. Therefore, it can be affirmed that the OTE tends not to have an effect on the CCI, thus extending the implication that an alteration in the private outbound tourism spending in most likely to be insufficient for the modification of the factor of consumer confidence. To ensure the robustness of the results, we have employed the quantile-based granger causality to investigate the causal relationship in quantile between CCI on the OTE. The results of this study tend to educate the foreign tourism policymakers, while at the same time making forecasts of the tourism arrivals from China. Policymakers can then plan their tourism strategies, ideally including the CCI.

Recurring Rural Destination Sport Events: A Study on Participants’ Direct Spending

The current study explores direct spending profiles of sport event tourists in a very small rural destination as an alternative to the multiplier effect economic impact studies. Sport event tourism has been used as an economic engine tool by a variety of destination sizes but has been neglected for small rural destinations, where people arrive from various distance radiuses to participate in this central activity for the place. Data were collected from participants at a small-scale recurring mountain running event. An online survey instrument was sent to the participants after the event. Participants reported on their daily and total expenditures regarding accommodation, meals and other tourist spending. The results revealed that the participants who responded to the survey spent on average about EUR 163 for accommodation, EUR 205 for meals and about EUR 38 for other tourist spending, such as souvenirs. Respondents from closer radius, spent less on average, approximately EUR 156, EUR 383 and EUR 26 for the respective spending categories. Rural destinations counting on hosting sport events for economic boosts in poorly economic areas witness considerable financial gains for the regions via the estimation of the more feasible direct spending calculations.

Calculating the Individual Expenses of Foreign Tourists in West Nusa Tenggara

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to investigate local tourism demand, specifically in West Nusa Tenggara Province. Unlike other studies that focus on the number of tourists who arrive, this article seeks to delve deeper into individual foreign tourist expenditures in West Nusa Tenggara. Method: Using qualitative research methods and a questionnaire as a tool. This study is involving 50 respondents using a random sampling technique. Result: The author discovers that visitor spending may be divided into various categories, including hotels, food and beverages, souvenirs, travel agencies, and local transportation. In addition, foreign visitors' spending in NTB ranges from IDR 250 thousand to IDR 125 million per trip. The average cost per person in Indonesia is IDR 5 million. The lowest daily spend per person is IDR 9,400, while the highest is IDR 11 million. Contribution: This study provides information on the actual spending of individual foreign tourists considering that the data available at institutions such as the Central Statistics Agency or the local Tourism Office has not been able to provide the latest data.

The Effects of Diminished Tourism Arrivals and Expenditures Caused by Terrorism and Political Unrest on the Kenyan Economy

The economic development of many countries globally relies heavily on tourism arrivals and spending. Terrorist attacks, political unrest, and other external shocks create disruptions and imbalances that lead to tourism crises with devastating effects on a country’s economy. The paper quantitatively examines the wider economic impacts and welfare effects of a continued decrease in tourism revenues caused by terrorism and political instability on the Kenyan economy. We use a dynamic Computable General Equilibrium model which we calibrate to a 2003 Social Accounting Matrix for Kanya. Our results reveal that a decrease in tourism spending causes a contraction of the economy in the short-term and long-term. Tourism contraction leads to decreased output, prices and wages in urban households, whereas the rural households notice an increase in welfare in the short and medium-term and a decrease in the long-term. Diversification of the tourism product, better branding, crisis management preparations and emphasis on domestic tourism that is less affected by disruption are ways to safeguard tourism in Kenya and beyond.

Reversing the question: does subjective well-being affect family tourism expenditure?

ABSTRACT Psychographic variables in the analysis of tourism expenditure are more extensively used and tracing a stronger relation to economic theory. However, provided by the official dataset widely, subjective well-being (SWB) is rarely used as an outcome. The purpose of this study is to examine how SWB affects family tourism spending. Robustness checks are applied to evaluate possible estimation bias and show that SWB has a positive relationship with probability of travelling. In addition, we attempt to account for circular causality by means of instrumental variable estimation and relaxation of the exclusion restriction. The empirical results show that high SWB increases tourism expenditure. Relevant differences among families with age, education and area of residence are also found. Finally, through mediation analysis, we find that the savings rate could weaken the influence of SWB. These results suggest that the savings rate imposes a threshold on household expenditure.

Heritage protection and tourism income: the tourism heritage Kuznets curve

Purpose Protecting a nation’s heritage is an essential element for sustainable development. Heritage attracts tourism and drives tourist income, as well as bringing wider economic, social and environmental benefits. This study aims to improve understanding of the relationship between heritage protection spending in countries and economic development via tourism revenues via economic logic and the Kuznets curve. Design/methodology/approach This study applies economic modelling to test for the presence of a Kuznets curve. This study uses rare available matched data on heritage protection spending from UNESCO and on travel and tourism total contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) from the World Travel and Tourism Council. Findings This paper finds evidence of a negative quadratic relationship between heritage protection spending per capita and tourism GDP per capita, whereby increases in heritage spending initially lead to more tourism income (typically less developed nations), but then tourism spending increases more rapidly for smaller increases heritage spending on top of this initial investment (typically more developed nations). No countries are yet at the stage where they reap high tourism income from much lower levels of heritage spending. Research limitations/implications The findings suggest that the future of heritage tourism will be very different to that of today; future tourism is likely to develop significantly through innovations in management approach and advanced technologies to manage the balance between demand and heritage degradation. Practical implications The predictive model allows us to plot future possibilities for heritage tourism, which in turn enables more informed decision-making regarding the planning and management of future heritage resources and tourism demand. Tourism heritage institutions and their benefactors should further plan and invest in innovations (such as technologies and management practices) to advanced economically and move along the tourism heritage Kuznets curve. Originality/value To the best of the author’s knowledge, this paper formally tests, for the first time, for the presence of a Kuznets curve in the relationship between heritage protection spending and tourism income. It provides original evidence of the value of applying the underlying theory of the Kuznets curve in a tourism context.