Toughness Properties Research Articles

Mechanical properties, tensile strength, anisotropy and electronic properties of ZrxSiy intermetallics

The thermodynamic properties, mechanical, ideal tensile strength, fracture toughness, anisotropy and electronic properties of Zr2Si, Zr3Si2, ZrSi2, Zr5Si3 α-ZrSi and β-ZrSi are studied by using the first principles. The results indicate that the six Zr-Si compounds satisfied with the structural stability. The elastic constants indicate that the six compounds satisfied with the mechanical stability criteria. The values of the ideal tensile strength were calculated for Zr-Si intermetallics. It is worth noting that β-ZrSi has the highest values of three elastic moduli among the six Zr-Si intermetallics, while ZrSi2 has the lowest values for three moduli. The Poisson's ratio indicates that six intermetallics are all brittle. The order of hardness is: Zr2Si > β-ZrSi > Zr5Si3 > ZrSi2 > Zr3Si2 > α-ZrSi. The fracture toughness of Zr5Si3 is the largest and ZrSi2 is the smallest. α- ZrSi has the best damage tolerance. The elastic anisotropy index, surface structures and projections indicate that six intermetallics are elastic anisotropy. Meanwhile, the elastic anisotropy is further explained by the sound velocity along the different directions. Debye temperature further confirmed the reason why ZrSi2 has the maximum hardness. Moreover, the electronic structures explain the mechanical properties.

Material design for ballistic applications: A numerical analysis of surface reinforced AA6061-T6 metal matrix composite

Several studies have been carried out to develop lightweight materials with enhanced ballistic properties to develop appropriate armor shields for the military to increase system mobility while maintaining safety. Of all the lightweight materials, aluminum is the better alternative because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, stiffness, resistance to corrosion, etc. Ballistic protection against projectiles can be aided further with the help of suitable ceramics. They combine relatively high strength and elastic modulus with high-temperature capability and general freedom from environmental attack, making them attractive as reinforcements in high-temperature structural materials. AA6061-T6 is considered the most commercially available of all aluminum alloys and has better impact toughness properties. Therefore, this research focuses mainly on evaluating the ballistic protection of the AA6061-T6 with 18 mm thickness using different reinforcements. Numerical analysis was conducted initially on the monolithic AA6061-T6 18 mm thickness plate and then with the 3 mm ceramic plate at the front and the base as 15 mm thick monolithic AA6061-T6 plate and evaluated the ballistic resistance individually. Finally, different reinforcements are induced in the top 3 mm thick AA6061-T6 layer and the base as the 15 mm thick AA6061-T6 plate and compared with the ceramic armor plates. The results revealed a prominent residual velocity after the bullet perforation into the target armor plate.

Development of hierarchically constructed robust multifunctional hydrogels for sensitive strain sensors by using guar gum and polydopamine to encapsulate liquid metal droplets

Conductive hydrogels have aroused tremendous interest as strain sensing materials because of their good biocompatibility, high stretchability, and structural similarity to natural soft tissues. However, fabricating a multifunctional conductive hydrogel that simultaneously exhibits high toughness, high sensing performance and a low detection limit remains a challenge. Herein, we developed a new conductive hydrogel with a hierarchical cluster network structure by using soft Ga droplets encapsulated by guar gum (GG), in situ polymerized polydopamine (PDA) as conductive materials and in situ synthesized/Ga3+-crosslinked poly acrylic acid (PAA) as a ductile hydrogel matrix. GG and PDA around Ga droplets constituted physically crosslinked dense rigid networks. Because of its completely physically crosslinked hierarchical cluster network structure with Ga droplets, the hydrogel, which was named GG-PDA-Ga-PAA, exhibited high toughness (1.8 MJ/m3), good moldability, adhesiveness, antibacterial activity and excellent self-healing properties. Its conductivity recovered more than 90 % within 83 ms, while its tensile strength (213.2 kPa) and elongation at break (1364 %) recovered 92.8 % and 100 %, respectively, within 6 h. When applied as a strain sensing material, the GG-PDA-Ga-PAA hydrogel displayed high sensitivity (GF=10.83), short response/recovery time (167/167 ms), ultralow detection limit (0.2 %) and good fatigue resistance and cyclic stability (1000 cycles). Due to its excellent comprehensive properties, the hydrogel can be applied as a competent wearable stain sensor for monitoring various human activities from pulses in the radial artery to human joint bending. This work provides a new approach for producing multifunctional conductive hydrogels for strain sensors.

High temperature self-lubricating Ti-Mo-Ag composites with exceptional high mechanical strength and wear resistance

Titanium alloys are of keen interest as lightweight structural materials for aerospace and automotive industries. However, a longstanding problem for these materials is their poor tribological performances. Herein, we designed and fabricated a multiphase Ti-Mo-Ag composite (TMA) with heterogeneous triple-phase precipitation (TPP) structure by spark plasma sintering. A lamellar α-phase (αL) precipitates from the β-phase under furnace cooling conditions and maintains a Burgers orientation relationship (BOR) with β-matrix. An active eutectic transition also occurs in the titanium matrix, resulting in TiAg phase. The intersecting acicular TiAg and lamellar αL cut β grains into fine blocks and the primary equiaxed α phase also provides many interfaces with β phase, which together effectively impede dislocation movement and increase strength. Compared with other titanium composites, TMA with TPP microstructure gets an excellent combination of strength (yield strength 1205 MPa) and toughness (fracture strain 27%). Furthermore, the TPP structure endows TMA with strong cracking resistance, which aids in reducing abrasive debris at high temperatures during sliding and obtaining a low wear rate. Simultaneously, Ag particles distributed at grain boundaries will easily diffuse to the wear surface, in situ forming the necessary lubricating phase Ag2MoO4 with Mo-rich matrix debris via oxidation. TMA possesses excellent tribological properties with especially low wear rate of 8.0 × 10−6 mm3N−1m−1 and friction coefficient (CoF) of merely 0.20 at 600 °C. Unlike other self-lubricating composites with high volume fraction of soft ceramic lubricants, which inevitably sacrifice their mechanical strength and ductility, the composite TMA possesses well-balanced strength, toughness and self-lubricating properties. It holds important implications to design other metal matrix self-lubricating composites (MMSCs) used for load-bearing moving parts.

Fracture Toughness of Ti6Al4V/Cp-Ti Multi-Material Produced via Selective Laser Melting

Multi-materials can locally enhance the properties of products to improve their performance. In some cases, it might be necessary to improve the fracture toughness properties locally. This work is devoted to investigating the fracture toughness of multi-material Ti6Al4V/Cp-Ti specimens produced via laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF). The powder feeding and distributing system of the L-PBF machine was modified for programmable dual-powder feed capability. The multi-material Ti6Al4V/Cp-Ti samples analyzed in this work are layered materials, where the Ti6Al4V alloy serves as the base material and Cp-Ti is present as separate layers. Samples of this type rely on the principle of crack inhibition, where fracture energy is dissipated in the more ductile Cp-Ti layers. Two variants of alternating ductile layers were studied. The microstructure of the materials and interfacial zone were analyzed using an optical microscope. Chemical composition was examined with a scanning electron microscope. The size of the interfacial zone in the multi-material averaged between 250 and 300 μm. A comparison of the tensile tests results with the literature data (of relatively pure Ti6Al4V alloy) reveals that there is a minor reduction in ultimate tensile strength and elongation. The obtained results confirm the possibility of locally increasing fracture toughness through the creation of a multi-material structure using L-PBF.

Effect of PVA latex powder and PP fiber on property of self-compacting alkali-activated slag repair mortar

Alkali-activated slag (AAS) cement shows the characteristics of fast hardening and high early strength, which is particularly suitable for repair materials. However, its high brittleness, poor toughness and poor workability hinder its application. The effects of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) latex powder and polypropylene (PP) fiber on the fluidity, mechanical properties including toughness and adhesive property of self-compacting alkali-activated slag repair mortar (SCARM) were studied. Their effects on the microstructure of SCARM were also studied. The results show that the addition of PVA is helpful to improve the workability. With the increase of PVA content, the 30 min fluidity increases greatly. The addition of PP reduces the fluidity of SCARM. The incorporation of PVA and PP can improve the mechanical property, toughness and adhesive property, especially when mixed together. PVA increases the compactness of SCARM. In addition, it also enhances the interface combination of PP and SCARM. The addition of PVA does not change the hydration products of AAS cement, but slightly increases the hydration degree.

Microstructure and High-Temperature Properties of Cr3C2-25NiCr Nanoceramic Coatings Prepared by HVAF

The study examines the microstructure and high-temperature properties of Cr3C2-25NiCr nanoceramic coatings on 316H high-temperature-resistant stainless steel that were prepared by high-velocity air–fuel spraying (HVAF) technology. The micromorphology, phase composition, fracture toughness, high-temperature hardness, high-temperature friction, and wear properties of the coating were studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), high-temperature Vickers hardness tester, high-temperature friction and wear tester, and surface profiler. The results show that the Cr3C2-25NiCr coating prepared by HVAF presents a typical thermal spraying coating structure, with a dense structure and a porosity of only 0.34%. The coating consists of a Cr3C2 hard phase, a NiCr bonding phase, and a small amount of Cr7C3 phase; The average microhardness of the coating at room temperature is 998.8 HV0.3, which is about five times higher than that of 316H substrate. The Weibull distribution of the coating is unimodal, showing stable mechanical properties. The average microhardness values of the coating at 450 °C, 550 °C, 650 °C, and 750 °C are 840 HV0.3, 811 HV0.3, 729 HV0.3, and 696 HV0.3 respectively. The average friction coefficient of the Cr3C2-25NiCr coating initially decreases and then increases with temperature. During high-temperature friction and wear, a dark gray oxide film forms on the coating surface. The formation speed of the oxide film accelerates with increasing temperature, shortening the running-in period of the coating. The oxide film acts as a lubricant, reducing the friction coefficient of the coating. The Cr3C2-25NiCr coating exhibits exceptional high-temperature friction and wear resistance, primarily through oxidative wear. The Cr3C2-25NiCr coating exhibits outstanding high-temperature friction and wear resistance, with oxidative wear being the primary wear mechanism at elevated temperatures.

Exploring the Prospects of Macadamia Nutshells for Bio-Synthetic Polymer Composites: A Review.

The global production of macadamia nuts has witnessed a significant increase, resulting in the accumulation of large quantities of discarded nutshells. These nutshells possess the properties of remarkable hardness and toughness, which are comparable to those of aluminum. Incorporating natural fillers to enhance the properties of composite materials for various applications, including light duty, structural, and semi-structural purposes, is a common practice. Given their inherent hardness and toughness, macadamia nutshells present an intriguing choice as fillers, provided that the manufacturing conditions are economically viable. With the urgent need to shift toward natural fillers and reduce reliance on synthetics, exploring macadamia nutshells as components of natural fiber composites becomes imperative. This review aims to comprehensively examine the existing body of knowledge on macadamia nutshells and their bio-synthetic polymer composites, highlighting key research findings, achievements, and identifying knowledge gaps. Furthermore, the article will outline prospective areas of focus for future research endeavors in this domain, aligning with the universal goal of minimizing synthetic materials.

Control of Cu Film Stress Deposited by Magnetron Sputtering Using Graphene Flake Layers

Residual stress of a 10 μm thick copper (Cu) film deposited using direct current (DC) magnetron sputtering system was analyzed. Graphene flake, having high toughness and strength properties, was inserted in Cu film for decreasing residual stress. Compared with the Graphene sheet transfer method, a Cu film sample with Graphene flake inserted using a simple brush deposition method could be fabricated. By using a graphene flake layer, the Cu residual stress was decreased from 25.4 MPa to 14.6 MPa. As decreasing the Graphene flake area ratios from 100% to 40%, the residual stress was reduced to 2.8 MPa. A 50×50 mm size heat sink was fabricated to confirm the thermal diffusion of Graphene flake, and the LED device was mounted on it. As a result, graphene flake was obtained the result that improved thermal diffusion of the heat sink.

Estimation of Planar and Normal Anisotropy Parameters of Al 8011 Sheets as Cold Rolled and Cold Rolled with Annealed Condition

Aluminium 8011 cast plates subjected to cold rolling to reduce thickness from 12 mm to 3.5 sheets. As rolled aluminium sheet was subjected to annealing treatment after rolling. This work deals with the study of planar and normal anisotropy parameters of as rolled aluminium and rolled with annealed aluminium sheets. The tensile test samples were cut at 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 90° with respect to the rolling direction of as rolled Al sheet and rolled with annealed Al sheet. Tensile properties were measured at different orientations to the rolling directions. The wide variation in tensile strength was found in case of as rolled Al samples at different orientation to rolling direction of sheet (208 to 243 MPa). On the other hand nearly uniform tensile strength (128 MPa to 132 MPa) was measured for rolled and annealed Al samples at different orientations. As rolled Al samples shows anisotropic tensile properties where as isotropic tensile properties were measured for rolled with annealed Al samples. Al grains are more elongated along the rolling directions where as rolled and annealed Al sample shows more equiaxed grains which is attributed to isotropic behaviour of Al sheets. The normal anisotropy parameter or average rm value is higher (1.24) in case of rolled and annealed sheet sample as compared to as rolled Al sheet rm value (1.06). This is attributed to isotropic behaviour of rolled and annealed samples. Toughness and ductility properties are improved more than 3 times in case of rolled and annealed Al sheet samples. Annealing treatment of rolled Al sheet samples shows elongated grain morphology changes to equiaxed grains of aluminum which tends to improved formability and isotropic mechanical properties Al sheet. For determination of normal anisotropy (rm) value, tensile results R values are required at angles of 0 degrees, 45 degrees, and 90 degrees. However in this study additional R values are estimated at 30 degree and 60 degree in order to understand trend of R value at every 30 degree from 0 to 90 degree.

Research on Mechanical Characteristics and Load-bearing Behavior of Nodes of Steel Fiber Concrete Arch Bridges

Steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) is a new type of composite material formed by dispersing discontinuous short steel fibers in a uniform and random direction throughout the concrete, which has excellent properties of tensile, shear and high toughness, can effectively improve the load-bearing capacity of arch bridges. In this paper, the mechanics of SFRP in the nodal structure of an arch bridge is initially explored by means of indoor model tests and numerical simulation studies. The results show that the maximum principal tensile stress occurs at the intersection of arch rib, arch foot and tie beam, and the maximum principal compressive stress occurs at the connection between arch rib and arch seat, which should be considered in the design. In this paper, we hope to understand the characteristics of the force and bearing capacity of this type of structure to provide a reference for similar projects.

Flexural toughness of extruded fiber-reinforced mortar with preferentially aligned fibers

This study explored the flexural toughness properties of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) using a modified ASTM C1609 third-point bending test, and it established a comparative study between two methods of casting: traditional casting and pump-driven extrusion. The primary hypothesis posited that the extrusion process would promote fiber alignment parallel to the tensile stresses, thereby enhancing the flexural performance of the concrete. The study corroborated previous research findings that introducing fibers enhances the ductility and post-peak performance of the concrete. Moreover, this research introduced a unique observation that strategic fiber alignment through extrusion could serve to further enhance the concrete's flexural performance. The research employed digital image correlation to capture the full displacement field during testing, facilitating an examination of the crack propagation process and strain localization. The findings showed that the extrusion-based casting method improved the residual strengths by an average of 39% and 87% compared to conventional cast method for the 0.5% and 1% fiber volume specimens, respectively. Additionally, the base of the extruded specimens exhibited a greater incidence of crack initiation and displayed enhanced energy absorption through multiple cracking events. These observations underscore the concept that fiber alignment, when facilitated by extrusion, plays a significant role in influencing crack propagation and, consequently, in improving the flexural properties of the composite material.

Multifunctional phosphorus-containing porphyrin dye for efficiently improving the thermal, toughness, flame retardant and dielectric properties of epoxy resins

To promote the application potential of epoxy resins (EPs) in electronic packaging, a novel phosphorus-containing porphyrin (PPR) dye was designed and synthesized to enhance the thermal, mechanical, flame retardant and dielectric properties of EPs. Incorporating PPR can efficiently improve the glass transition temperature (Tg) and thermodynamic properties of bisphenol-A EP. Meanwhile, PPR exhibited a significant toughening effect for EP with an enhancement of 59.5 % of elongation at the break without any stress sacrifice. Moreover, the loading of only 5 wt% PPR led to the UL-94 V-0 rating for EP. When 7 wt% PPR was added into EP, the peak heat release rate (PHRR) and total smoke production (TSP) were reduced by 44.3 % and 14.6 %, respectively, indicating the distinguished flame retardant properties. More importantly, the dielectric constant of EP composites gradually decreased with the increasing loading of PPR. This work provides a feasible approach to create EP composites via incorporating P-based porphyrin which are promisingly utilized as electronic packaging materials in integrated circuits field.

Impact of organic peroxide on a moderate molecular weight homo-polypropylene vis breaking, and mechanism of interaction

In this study, we show that organic peroxide is a useful tool for breaking the viscosity or chain of polypropylene during melt processing to provide a regulated rheology product. Reactive extrusion is used to crosslink peroxide and combine it with polypropylene (PP). To achieve end-use applications with performance targets, stabilizers are required to preserve the polymer’s initial strength, flexibility, and toughness properties. Other additives are added to PP in addition to stabilization in order to enhance or change certain of its properties. With the addition of varying levels of organic peroxide [2,5-Dimethyl-2,5-di (tert-butyl peroxy) hexane]. The use of peroxide in the manufacturing process of polypropylene is a method of breaking in the polymer chains, which can affect its properties, including its MFI. It is possible that increasing the amount of peroxide used leads to a higher degree of branching or cross-linking, which in turn leads to a higher MFI value. However, it is important to note that the relationship between the amount of peroxide used and the resulting MFI values may not be linear and may depend on other factors as well. In addition to the MFI, other properties of the polypropylene were also measured, including shear and melt flow index, melting and crystallization temperatures, flexural and tensile moduli, and yield stress. These properties are important for understanding the mechanical and thermal behavior of the polymer and can be used to optimize its performance for specific applications.

Improvement in the toughness and adhesive properties of cyanate ester resin by incorporation of fluorinated poly(aryl ether nitrile)

AbstractCyanate ester (CE) resins possess excellent thermal and mechanical characteristics, yet their brittleness and high cross‐link density limit their practical application. To overcome this limitation, the modification of CE with thermoplastic resins has been employed as an effective strategy to enhance their toughness and mechanical properties. In this study, a novel fluorinated poly(aryl ether nitrile) (PFPEN) with excellent solubility and thermal properties was synthesized through a nucleophilic substitution reaction. The effect of the addition of PFPEN on a blend composed of bisphenol A cyanate ester (ACE) and a mixed catalyst was investigated. Differential scanning calorimetry results showed that the addition of PFPEN facilitated the curing reaction of ACE, resulting in a lower exothermic peak temperature. Compared to the pure ACE, the addition of PFPEN at 20 phr significantly improved the tensile and impact strengths of the resin, as well as enhanced the lap shear strength at room temperature by 36% and the peel strength by 320%, respectively. The scanning electron microscope results showed a ductile fracture mechanism. However, it should be noted that the decrease in crosslinking density resulting from the addition of PFPEN may affect the lap shear strength at 300°C and the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the material.

The physical properties of Sc2PbC: A first-principles calculations

The structural, electronic, elastic, hardness, fracture toughness, and thermodynamic properties of the newly synthesized MAX phase Sc2PbC were studied for the first time through the first-principles calculations. The optimized lattice parameters are in agreement with the experimental data. The thermodynamic and mechanical stability of Sc2PbC is verified based on the formation enthalpy and single-crystal elastic constants. By analyzing the polycrystalline elastic moduli, it is found that Sc2PbC is brittle, very soft, easily machinable, and exhibits elastic anisotropy. Finally, thermodynamic properties such as Debye temperatures, thermal conductivity, melting temperature, and the temperature dependence of heat capacity are investigated.

Intrinsic photothermal phase change materials with enhanced toughness and flexibility for thermal management in extreme environments

Polymeric solid–solid phase-change materials (SSPCMs) are capable of reversibly absorbing or releasing high latent heat and have been widely studied for thermal energy storage (TES) due to their excellent shape stability and certain mechanical properties. The photothermal fillers were introduced to impart SSPCMs with photo-responsive ability. However, the incompatibility interface between fillers and SSPCMs matrix always causes serious deterioration of mechanical toughness and flexibility. Herein, we report an intrinsic photothermal SSPCM by incorporating a reactive photothermal agent (dihydroxy naphthalene (DN)) into linear polyurethane SSPCMs. The prepared SSPCMs have adjustable phase transition enthalpy and temperature as well as long-term cycle stability. The highest efficiency of SSPCM in near-infrared photothermal conversion including sensible and latent heat is 59.7 %, and the solar photothermal conversion efficiency is 48.1 %. Moreover, SSPCMs exhibit superior mechanical toughness of 193 MJ/m3 and flexibility, which can withstand repeated rotation, folding and stretching. The SSPCMs developed in this work can enable the human body to obtain the heat needed for life through photothermal conversion in extreme environments such as the Arctic, increasing the probability of survival. Therefore, this study provides a facile strategy for fabricating intrinsic photothermal SSPCMs with high toughness and flexibility properties, which have great potential in wearable device for thermal management in extreme environments.

High‐Strength, High‐Barrier Bio‐Based Polyester Nanocomposite Films by Binary Multiscale Boron Nitride Nanosheets

AbstractOwing to the inferior dispersibility of boron nitride nanosheets (BNNSs) and weak interfacial interaction with the matrix, the performance of BNNS‐based composites is usually far below theoretically predicted values. Here, binary multiscale BNNSs (LDH‐BNNSs) fillers are synthesized through in situ growth of layered double hydroxide (LDH) on the BNNSs’ surfaces. LDH‐BNNSs with a multiple mosaic interface show superior dispersion of nanosheets in matrix and extraordinary filler‐matrix bonding. Density functional theory simulations reveal the stable dispersion mechanism of LDH‐BNNSs. Moreover, the bio‐based poly(ethylene furandicarboxylate) composites with 0.2 wt% LDH‐BNNSs loading exhibit simultaneous improvements in tensile strength (≈140 MPa), Young's modulus (≈6.5 GPa), toughness (≈2.0 MJ m−3), and gas barrier properties. Regulation of the interfacial structures of binary multiscale BNNSs significantly increases the filler utilization of the nanosheets, leading to extraordinary stress transfer efficiency and a physical shielding effect. Therefore, this simple, efficient, and novel strategy has promised in enhancing composite performance, and it provides a novel way to develop strong, tough, and high‐barrier bio‐based polyester composites.

Mode I and Mode II fracture behavior in pultruded glass fiber-polymer – Experimental and numerical investigation

Many recent works have shown that the capacity of pultruded glass fiber-polymer structural members is governed by interlaminar failure. However, there is still a lack of information regarding the fracture properties associated and the best techniques to be adopted. This paper aims to propose a testing methodology and to evaluate the interlaminar fracture of pultruded glass fiber-polymer specimens extracted from a composite bridge deck system. Both Modes I and II were investigated, through Double Cantilever Beam (DCB) and End-Loaded-Split (ELS) tests, respectively. The starter crack (or initial separation) was introduced via a water jet machine and the crack length was measured with the video extensometer technique. In all, nine different methods were applied to obtain the fracture toughness properties. The results are discussed and compared with 2D non-linear finite element models, where the cohesive zone model (CZM) approach was used. The Modified Beam Theory method (MBTASTM) presented the best results for crack propagation in Mode I, whereas differences lower than 1% from experiments were obtained when using the Corrected beam theory using effective crack length (CBTE) and the Experimental compliance method (EMC) methods for Mode II.

Optimization and fuzzy model for evaluation of mechanical and tribological properties of Al-CNT-Si3N4 based nano and hybrid composites

Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) has an extraordinary combination of high hardness, strength, toughness, and advanced properties like excellent wear and corrosion resistant, thermal shock resistance. Also, Carbon Nano Tube (CNT) has grasped interest among the researchers owing to its superior mechanical and thermal properties. Hence, the present study intents to fabricate Al matrix reinforced with Si3N4 nano particulate and Al matrix reinforced with CNT and Si3N4 particulate called hybrid composite via gravity casting route. The fabricated composites were tested for compression test, hardness and tribological test. The L9 orthogonal array was selected to conduct the tribological test in dry sliding conditions. Furthermore, SEM, an optical microscope, and image analysis tools were used to characterize the created composites. To determine the ideal operating conditions of the tribology test, analysis of variance was performed. The correlation between the input parameters and the wear rate, COF, was established using regression models. In order to predict the rate of wear with greater than 95% accuracy, a fuzzy model was developed based on the experimental data.