Total Training Load Research Articles

Six weeks of polarized functional interval training with large training load reductions does not affect performance gains compared to traditional workouts.

High-intensity functional interval training (HIFT) is predominantly composed of high exercise training intensities (HiT) and loads. Both have been linked to a higher risk of overtraining and injuries in inexperienced populations. A polarized training approach is characterized by high amounts of low-intensity training (LiT) and only approximately 5%-20% HiT. Compared to HIT-based training, this approach can result in temporary training load and intensity reductions without diminishing training gains. Thus, we aimed to examine the effects of traditional (TRAD) HIFT vs. polarized (POL) HIFT on relevant performance parameters. Thirty athletes (15 females, age: 26.6 ± 5.0 years, height: 1.76 ± 0.13 m, body mass: 79.6 ± 12.4 kg, prior experience: 2.3 ± 2.0 years, training volume: 6.1 ± 2.4 h/wk) were randomly assigned to 6 weeks of either POL (78% LiT, 22% threshold intensity training (ThT) to HiT) or TRAD (26% LiT, 74% ThT to HiT). HIFT performance testing focused on maximal strength (squat: SQ1RM, deadlift: DL1RM, overhead press: OHP1RM, high pull: HP1RM), endurance (peak oxygen uptake: V̇O2peak, lactate threshold: LT, peak power output (PPO), and benchmark HIFT workout (Jackie: 1000 m rowing, 50 thrusters, and 30 pull-ups for time). POL (785 ± 71 au) completed significantly (p ≤ 0.001; SMD = 4.55) lower training load (eTRIMP) than TRAD (1,273 ± 126 au). rANCOVA revealed no statistical relevant group×time interaction effects (0.094 ≤ p ≤ 0.986; 0.00 ≤ ηp 2 ≤ 0.09) for SQ1RM, DL1RM, OHP1RM, high pull, V̇O2peak, LT, PPO, and Jackie performance. Both groups revealed trivial to moderate but significant (rANCOVA time effects: p ≤ 0.02; 0.01 ≤ ηp 2 ≤ 0.11; 0.00 ≤ SMD ≤ 0.65) performance gains regarding DL1RM, OHP1RM, HP1RM, and Jackie. Despite a notably lower total training load, conditioning gains were not affected by a polarized functional interval training regimen.

The Relationship Between Training Load and Injury in Competitive Swimming: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study

Training load monitoring is employed to quantify training demands, to determine individual physiological adaptions and to examine the dose–response relationship, ultimately reducing the likelihood of injury and making a meaningful impact on performance. The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between training load and injury in competitive swimmers, using the session rate of perceived exertion (sRPE) method. Data were collected using a prospective, longitudinal study design across 104 weeks. Data were collected from 34 athletes centralised in two of Swim Ireland’s National Centres. Bayesian mixed effects logistic regression models were used to analyse the relationship between sRPE-TL and medical attention injuries. The average weekly swim volume was 33.5 ± 12.9 km. The weekly total training load (AU) averaged 3838 ± 1616.1. A total of 58 medical attention injury events were recorded. The probability of an association between training load and injury ranged from 70% to 98%; however, evidence for these relationships was deemed weak or highly uncertain. The findings suggest that using a single training load metric in isolation cannot decisively inform when an injury will occur. Instead, coaches should utilise monitoring tools to ensure that the athletes are exposed to an appropriate training load to optimise physiological adaptation. Future research should strive to investigate the relationship between additional risk factors (e.g., wellbeing, lifestyle factors or previous injury history), in combination with training load and injury, in competitive swimmers.

Relation between wearable heart rate monitor derived training load and cardiac adaption in endurance athletes

Abstract Background No studies have effectively measured training load (TL) from wearable heart rate (HR) monitors and determined its relation to exercise induced left and right ventricular (LV, RV) remodeling. A better insight into drivers of exercise induced cardiac remodeling is of clinical relevance to guide training advice in athletes at risk of adverse remodeling. Purpose We determined the TL, based on HR monitoring by commercial wearables[1]. The number and duration of training sessions was quantified during a period of 3 months. Training-intensity was calculated as Edwards TRIMP (eTRIMP) based on the product of training duration in one of 5 HR zones (1=light, 5=very vigorous) and the coefficient related to the respective HR zone. Methods Training data was collected in 2 prospective multicenter studies. Master@Heart comprises endurance trained middle-aged men aged 45 to 70years[2]. Pro@Heart consists of elite athletes aged 16 to 23years[3]. For this analysis, all male athletes with complete training data recorded using a chest-worn HR monitor for 3 months were included. Using an in-house developed pipeline, maximal HR and TL were calculated from raw training data. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging was performed to measure indexed LV/RV end-diastolic volume (LVEDVi, RVEDVi), end-systolic volume (LVESVi, RVESVi), ejection fraction (LVEF, RVEF) and LV mass (LVMi). Results Pro@Heart athletes (n=69; age 21.9 ± 4.2 years) trained more than Master@Heart athletes (n=82; age 55.2 ± 6.5 years) and their total 3-month TL (eTRIMP) was also higher (9718 ± 3190 vs. 5499 ± 3775min; P<0.05 and 22339 ± 7350 vs. 13438 ± 8880 AU; P< 0.05; Table 1). Considering all athletes, there was a strong correlation between both training duration and eTRIMP and LVEDVi, LVESVi, LVMi, RVEDVi and RVESVi. Training duration in zone 1&2 correlated well with LVEDVi, LVESVi, LVSV, LVMi, RVEDVi and RVESVi (Table 2). We found small significant negative correlations between duration and eTRIMP compared to LVEF and RVEF (Table 2). To filter out individual training factors influencing cardiac remodeling we used a partial least squares method which included time and percentage of time spent in training zones and age. Accordingly, training duration in zone 1&2 and age were the main predictors of cardiac volumes and LVMi. For LVEF, age and time in zone 3 was most predictive, whereas for RVEF zone 3 and to a lesser degree zone 1&2 were the main predictors, irrespective of age. Interestingly, time spent in high intensity zones 4 and 5 was not predictive. Conclusion We prospectively quantified TL in comparison to CMR-derived measures of cardiac remodeling and demonstrated that training duration in low intensity training zones is most predictive for cardiac volumes and mass, whereas LVEF and RVEF are more closely associated to time in zone 3. Very vigorous intensity exercise was not predictive, likely due to limited time training in zone 4 and 5.

REGULAR LOW-DOSE CAFFEINE SUPPLEMENTATION DURING TRAINING DOES NOT PROVIDE ADDITIONAL BENEFIT TO SUBSEQUENT EXERCISE PERFORMANCE IN AUSTRALIAN RULES FOOTBALL ATHLETES

INTRODUCTION & AIMS Acute caffeine supplementation can improve exercise types like those completed by Australian Rules football (ARF) players during training. Hypothetically athletes could implement caffeine supplementation prior to training, allowing them to complete more training volume, improving adaptation and subsequent exercise performance. This study aimed to investigate the effect of regular low-dose caffeine ingestion pre-training during a training block on subsequent exercise performance. METHODS Twenty-nine male semi-professional ARF players were randomly allocated to a caffeine or placebo group. The four-week intervention period involved participants ingesting 2 mg·kg·BM-1 of caffeine or a placebo 60 min prior to two of their three weekly training sessions, which incorporated sport-specific conditioning and skills training. To assess exercise performance, a battery of tests was used before and after the intervention period including the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 2 (YYIRT2), 20 m sprint and vertical jump (VJ). Performance differences were assessed using a linear mixed-effect model. RESULTS Mean session rating of perceived exertion (p = .24) and total training load (p =.53) were not different between caffeine and placebo groups over the intervention. There were no significant time x condition interaction effects for YYIRT2 accumulated distance (p = .87), or 5, 10 and 20 m sprint times (p =.06 - .44), however both caffeine and placebo groups improved YYIRT2 distance and sprint times following four weeks of training (p < 0.01). There was a significant effect for time showing decreased VJ performance (p < 0.01), with greater reductions in the placebo group (p = .03). CONCLUSION It is more beneficial to implement an effective training program for athletes rather than focusing effort on regular low-dose caffeine supplementation to augment the training stimulus. The training stimulus itself is typically greater for developing endurance and sprint effort performance, with supplemental caffeine showing no additional performance benefit.

Resistance Trainings for Enhancement in Jumping Performance: A Comparative Analysis

The primary purpose of programming is to organize training factor modifications that will provide the greatest possible improvement in performance. However, the best programming approach that results in enhanced neuromuscular adaptations is still unclear. This research set out to determine how three varying degrees of unpredictability within resistance training programs affected performance gains. Thirty-six people were split into three groups of twelve each: those who would receive training based on a weekly model (WM), those who would receive instruction based on a daily model (DM), and those who would receive training based on a session model (SM); Six weeks of back squat sessions comprised the training intervention. All participants received the same total training load during the course of six-week intervention. We tested the individual's maximum dynamic strength (1RM) in the back-squat, countermovement jump (CMJ), and squat jump (SJ) both before and after the training intervention. Significant gains were observed across the board (p<0.05). The effect size (ES) of the session model in 1RM is just 0.29. Effect sizes for the daily model and session model in SJ are both moderate, at 0.61 and 0.41 respectively. The impact size in the CMJ daily model is quite moderate (0.51), while it is very large (0.99) in the session model. The results of this study show that changing the type of stimulus used in resistance training more often is a significant way to improve both strength and jumping ability at the same time.

Changes in physical performance, body composition and physical training during military operations: systematic review and meta-analysis

Systematic review and meta-analysis applying PRISMA guidelines with a PICOS format was constructed to provide an overview of changes in physical performance, body composition and physical training in soldiers during prolonged (≥ 3 months) military operations. Twenty-four studies out of the screened 4431 records filled the inclusion criteria. A small decrease in endurance performance was the most consistent finding (Hedge's g [g] − 0.21, 95% CI − 0.01 to − 0.41) while small overall increases in maximal strength of the lower (g 0.33, 95% CI 0.16–0.50) and upper body (g 0.33, 95% CI 0.19–0.46) were observed. In addition, small increases in strength endurance (push-up, g 0.34, 95% CI 0.15–0.52; sit-up g 0.26, 95% CI 0.07–0.44) were observed. The overall changes in body composition were trivial. Heterogeneity in the outcome variables varied mainly between low to moderate. Large inter-individual variations were observed in physical training volume, including decrements especially in endurance training frequency and volume. A reduction in total training load was often associated with negative changes in body composition and physical performance according to the principle of training specificity. Individuals with higher initial fitness level were more susceptible to decrements in their physical performance during operation.

Correlation between training load variables and sports performance in elite athletes during a CrossTraining competition

Controlling training loads is important to obtain results and avoid overtraining in athletes. In CrossTraining, subjective perception of effort (PSE) has been cited as an important parameter for load control, however, little is known about the contribution of physiological parameters. The objective of this study was to investigate the correlations between training control variables and performance in elite athletes during a CrossTraining competition. Ten athletes (26.4 ± 4.5 years, 84.32 ± 6.75 kg, height 1.74 ± 0.21 m) participated in the study. The RPE values ​​were recorded at the end of each test, and the athletes were monitored in real time using a HR monitoring system (Firstbeat SPORT, Jyvaskyla, Finland). The training control variables collected were: Total training volume (VTT), PSE, training load (PSE X time), mean and maximum HR, average and training impulse (TRIMP). Pearson's correlation coefficient demonstrated the following associations with competitive performance (VTT, r=0.87; RPE, r=0.28; training load, r=0.60; HRmáx, r=0.73; HRmean, r=0.76 and TRIMP, r=0.87). In conclusion, physiological parameters showed significant correlations compared to RPE, being more suitable for monitoring CrossTraining athletes.

Improving the special physical training of young powerlifters with the help of various training devices in the preparatory period of the annual macrocycle

The goal: to improve the special physical training of 14-15-year-old powerlifters with the help of various non-traditional training devices in the preparatory period. Material and methods: this study was attended by young pupils of the State School of Education No. 9 and the State School of the Kharkiv State Technical University of Kharkiv. 30 young powerlifters aged 14-15 were involved in the experiment, all of them had II and III sports categories. The participants were divided according to their sports qualifications into two groups - control and experimental. The participants of the experiment trained 4 times a week. Results: it was found that the athletes of the main group who used non-traditional training methods on special training devices such as a medicine ball, sand bag, rubber shock absorber and with a total training load of classical training methods made 950 barbell lifts, equal to 99 tons, after the experiment improved the strength indicators in the triathlon by 16.5 kg, and also set their own records in contrast to the control group, which trained according to the traditional method and used the volume of the load, which was 1010 barbell lifts and 121 tons, and improved the strength results by - 7, 2 kg. Conclusions: thus, it can be concluded that the use of these devices by the experimental group: medicine ball, sand-bag, rubber shock absorber contributes to the development of speed- strength and strength qualities, and therefore leads to an increase in sports results in powerlifting. Thus, the results of the study of the experimental group, at the end of the preparatory period, there was a probable difference between the indicators: in squatting with a barbell on the shoulders (t=2.5; p<0.05); bench press (t=2.5; p<0.05) and Sumo deadlift (t=4.6; p<0.001).

Training load and intensity distribution for sprinting among world-class track cyclists.

Only few studies analyzed real training programs of sprinters while that should be a valuable step in the understanding of sprint training. The present study aimed at characterizing track cycling sprinter training by training load and intensity distribution. Twenty-nine weeks of prechampionship training data were retrospectively analyzed for 6 world-class athletes. Training load was measured by the ratio of volume completed to maximal volume and categorized by five intensity zones (endurance: zones1-2; sprinting: zones3-5) and exercise type (on-bike or resistance). Intra-week (training monotony) and inter-week (acute-chronic workload ratio) variation was also studied. On-bike training represented 77.4±15.3% of total training load; resistance training, 22.6±15.2% (note high standard deviation). Total weekly training load significantly varied (P=0.0002) with high acute-chronic workload ratio (12.0±3.2 weeks >1.5 or <0.8), but low intra-week variations (training monotony, 1.81±0.20). Zone4 and zone5 made up 74.4±16.9% of total training load; zone1, 15.8±11%. Training load was seldom in zone2 (6.4±5.3%) or zone3 (3.3±4.2%). From the first to the second half of the period, zone3-4 training load decreased (39.3±3.3 to 27.4±1.7%; P=0.01), while zone5 increased (34.9±2.4 to 50±3.7%; P=0.002). In this reduced group of elite athletes, training appeared to mainly consist of on-bike exercises within the highest intensity zones. As demonstrated by monotony and acute-chronic workload ratio overloading and unloading are based on high variations over weeks, not days. Essentially, this study describes a polarized intensity distribution on the highest intensities which increased with world championships approach.

Effects of Various Rehabilitations on Pain and Performance of Elite Athletes Who Return to Play after Lumbar Disc Herniation

It is well-known that lower back pain (LBP) is a fairly common complaint in professional sports. Lumbar disc herniation (LDH) is a common cause of LBP in athletes. Currently, more robust studies on treatment and rehabilitation modalities for elite athletes, who have LDH, are needed. This study investigated the effects of various rehabilitations on recovery process and return to sport in elite male athletes who have surgical treatment of LDH. Participants: elite male athletes (n=46) who underwent surgical intervention – removal of a herniation of the intervertebral disc (L4-L5-S1) on lumbar spine (lumbar discectomy). Group-1 (athletes – n=23), who applied physical rehabilitation (specific motor exercises) during 3 months after surgical treatment. Group-2 (athletes – n=23) applied electroneuromyostimulation therapy and limited physical activity during 2 months after surgical intervention. After 2 months, athletes (group-2) applied specific motor exercises during 30 days, in addition to electroneuromyostimulation routine. All athletes returned to play, after rehabilitation routine. The level of pain and training load of athletes using Visual Analog Scale (VAS), Russian Oswestry Disability Index (RODI) and personal athletes' diaries in 3–12 months after surgical treatment, were analyzed. There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in VAS and RODI rates between groups in 6–12 months after surgical intervention. There were significant (p ≤ 0.05) differences in total training load amount between groups in 9–12 months after operative treatment. Athletes (group-2) demonstrated a lower level of pain and a higher level of daily training load amount in comparison with athletes (group-1). There is a strong positive effect of electroneuromyostimulation therapy and restriction of physical activity in rehabilitation routine for elite male athletes, who returned to sports after surgical treatment of LDH.

Individualizing the Throwing Progression Following Injury in Baseball Pitchers: the Past, Present, and Future.

A critical component of any rehabilitation program following injury is a graduated exposure of pathologic or vulnerable tissue to sport-specific stressors. A foundational aspect in the return to sport process following an injury in baseball athletes is the development of an interval throwing program. A shift has occurred in recent years from generic programs to individualized progressions. The current review explores the evolution of interval throwing program construction and discusses the possibilities of the future with advancements in technology and understanding. Early interval throwing programs relied primarily on pre-determined throwing distance and volume to estimate total training load while following a fixed throwing schedule. Currently, clinicians have begun to utilize available technology in attempts to determine training prescription and obtain more accurate estimates of stresses placed upon the body. Thus, interval throwing programs have become more individualized and flexible to account for each athlete's individual differences and biological response to training. Future development may be able to predict specific internal response to stressors and proactively adjust training load to maximize positive adaptations while minimizing any maladaptive events. As with all concepts and principles within the realm of athlete rehabilitation, clinicians must continue to adapt how they conceptualize and develop individualized interval throwing programs for the overhead throwing athlete. We will continue to see a shift away from a responsive approach to a proactive one, where clinicians can utilize modern technologies to precisely prescribe a throwing dosage based upon expected tissue response within the athlete.

Training Load Management in Professional Tennis Players During COVID-19 Lockdown: A Case Series Study

Background During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, training routines of most athletes around the world were abruptly interrupted, potentially increasing the risk of injury. The purpose of this study was to compare 3 measures of training load (TL): tennis-specific TL, physical TL, and total TL management before, during, and after lockdown of 3 professional male tennis players. Case Presentation Three professional male tennis players were monitored throughout the 2020 season. Outcome and Follow-Up The median total weekly TL (CR-10 Borg rating of perceived exertion—session length in minutes) was 5783 arbitrary units (AU). The total weekly TLs before, during, and after lockdown were 7195, 3753, and 5950, respectively. During lockdown, tennis TL was reduced to 0, while physical TL (including preventive loads) increased by 73%. All players suffered an injury/illness during tennis training resumption following lockdown, where 2 of them were musculoskeletal related and the others were due to COVID-19. There was no association between total acute:chronic workload ratio (ACWR) and injury. However, one case had a spike (&gt;1.5) in tennisspecific ACWR 2 weeks before injury, despite maintaining total ACWR between 0.8 and 1.5. Discussion Tennis and physical differential TL monitoring should be carried out separately in order to ensure tennis-specific player readiness. If only total load is monitored during lockdown or rehabilitation from injury, subsequent increases in tennis load upon return to play could potentially increase the risk of injury. The 3 participants showed a similar pattern of total TL throughout the season with pre-lockdown loads being the highest. JOSPT Cases 2022;2(3):141–148. Epub: 21 June 2022. doi:10.2519/josptcases.2022.10863

The Effect of Three Different Resistance Training Programming Approaches on Strength Gains and Jumping Performance

ABSTRACT Background: A main goal of programming is to structure the optimal variations in training factors to optimize athletes’ adaptations. Nevertheless, it remains unknown the optimal programming model leading to greater neuromuscular adaptations. Purpose: The aim of the present study was to assess the influence of three different magnitudes of variability within resistance training programs on performance adaptations. Methods: Forty participants were assigned to three different groups differing in the frequency of change in training contents: a weekly model (WM; n = 12), a daily model (DM; n= 14), and a session model (SM; n = 14). The training intervention lasted for six weeks, performing two sessions per week of back-squat exercise. Total training load (volume and intensity) of the six-week intervention was equated for all groups. Maximum dynamic strength (1RM) in the back-squat, countermovement (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ) were measured pre- and post-training intervention. Results: All groups showed significant increases (p< .05) in 1RM, with the SM showing greater increases than the WM (20.5 vs 13.6%; p= .022). Although not reaching statistical significance, the magnitude of the increases in CMJ tended to be greater for DM and SM group (9.5% and 8.1%, respectively,) than in the WM (4.4%). All groups showed similar increases in the SJ (7.7–9.9%). Conclusions: The results of the present study suggest that the use of more frequent stimuli variations within resistance training programming is a key factor to achieve concomitant increases in strength and jumping performance.

Effects of two low-volume high-intensity interval training protocols in professional soccer: sprint interval training versus small-sided games.

The programming of training protocols within a high-intensity interval training (HIIT) framework with appropriate analysis of total training load could deliver optimal training adaptations. This study aims to compare the efficiency of two low-volume HIIT protocols integrated with the regular training regime in professional soccer players. Twenty-five participants aged 18.4-29.7 years were randomly assigned to one of two interventions involving straight-line sprint interval training (SIT, N.=13) or small-sided games (SSG, N.=12). Periodization was divided into two 3-week phases concluded by a 7-day taper. SIT first involved two-session·week-1 of one set of 10·45-s sprints (at maximal intensity) and then three-session·week-1 of two sets of 10·30-s sprints with a 0.75:1 and 1:1 recovery interval (slow running and stretching exercises), respectively. SSG in the first phase involved 5·3-min games of 4 vs. 4 and in the second phase 4·4-min games of 2 vs. 2 with 3-min recovery (practice drills at 60-70% HR<inf>max</inf>). Training load was controlled via session-RPE and HR-based methods. Pre- and postintervention testing included: countermovement jump height, 5-m and 30-m sprints performance, anaerobic power by the 10-s Wingate Anaerobic Test, maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O<inf>2max</inf>) and blood lactate concentration (BLa-) determined by incremental exhaustive running test. Two-way ANOVA showed group×time interaction effects for the 30-m sprint time (F<inf>(1,23)</inf>=3.023; P=0.049; η2 P=0.116), BLa- (F<inf>(1,23)</inf>=5.250; P=0.031; η2 P=0.185), and V̇O<inf>2max</inf> (F<inf>(1,23)=</inf>4.648, P=0.044; η2 P=0.157). SIT elicited greater enhancements in anaerobic performance (30-m sprint time and BLa-), while SSG induced larger improvements in V̇O<inf>2max</inf>. Comparable effects of SIT and SSG protocols were noted, however the aerobic capacity benefits provided by SSG warrant this HIIT protocol as a highly recommended training modality in the professional soccer.

The sciatic and radial nerves seem to adapt similarly to different ladder-based resistance training protocols.

The present study aimed to compare the morphological response induced by different ladder-based resistance training (LRT) protocols on the peripheral nerve ultrastructure of young adult Wistar rats. Twenty-nine rodents were distributed into groups: control (CON), submaximal (SUBMAX [6 climbs/session, moderate intensity, 3x/week]) and maximum (MAX [> 4 climbs/session, maximum intensity, 3x/week]) LRT. After 8weeks, the radial and sciatic nerves were removed and prepared for transmission electron microscopy. In the radial nerve, the myelinated fibers and axons, myelin sheath thickness, and unmyelinated axons were statistically greater in the SUBMAX and MAX. The MAX group had greater unmyelinated fibers than SUBMAX. The Schwann cell (SC) nuclei diameter was statistically larger in the SUBMAX than the CON. The number of microtubules and neurofilaments was statistically higher in the SUBMAX and MAX. In the sciatic nerve, the myelinated fibers, myelinated and unmyelinated axons, and myelin sheath thickness were statistically greater in the SUBMAX and MAX. The SUBMAX and MAX had more SC at the nuclei level than CON. The SC nuclei were statistically larger in the SUBMAX and MAX. The number of microtubules and neurofilaments was statistically higher in the SUBMAX and MAX. Total training load and total load per climb were not different between groups. The SUBMAX and MAX statistically increased maximum carried load (ML). In conclusion, the different LRT protocols induced similar morphological responses in radial and sciatic nerves, probably due to load progression and equal total load volume.

Guidelines for performing systematic reviews in sports science.

Most of the reviews carried out in sports science have used the general items suggested by Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA). Due to the specific requirements of each knowledge area, several modifications of the PRISMA are necessary to optimize the process of the systematic reviews and, in consequence, the quality of the conclusions provided in this type of study. Therefore, this work aimed to adapt PRISMA to provide specific guidelines to carry out systematic reviews in sports science. The methodology criteria (search strategy, databases, and eligibility) and the results section (flow diagrams and study contents) were adapted based on previous studies, and several new considerations were added to design the new guidelines. We compiled 28 items suggested by sports science researchers and included two new items: (i) population/problem (i.e., age, level, and country) and (ii) the entire training process, which is monitored and compared between groups (e.g., total training load). To maximize the benefit of this document, we encourage people to read it in conjunction with the PRISMA statement. The main differences between PRISMA and the PRISMA adapted to sports science were related to registration, search strategy, flow diagrams, and results. Application of the new guidelines could improve the information provided to readers and make it easier to generalize and compare the results in sports science.

Session Rating of Perceived Exertion Is Different for Similar Intensity and Duration Prescribed Low-Intensity Sessions and Has a Different Effect on Performance in Young Cross-Country Skiers.

Pind, R, Purge, P, Mäestu, E, Vahtra, E, Hofmann, P, and Mäestu, J. Session rating of perceived exertion is different for similar intensity and duration prescribed low-intensity sessions and has a different effect on performance in young cross-country skiers. J Strength Cond Res 37(1): 187-193, 2023-The aim of this study was to analyze whether the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the resulting internal load (sRPE) could differ among subjects when volume and intensity are matched in young cross-country (XC) skiers. Second, we analyzed whether subjects with a high or low RPE response and sRPE have different adaptation after a 1-week low-intensity high-volume training period. Well-trained national level XC skiers (n = 13) aged 13.4 ± 1.9 years took part in a 1-week training period with double poling performance tested pretraining and after 1-week training. All subjects trained under a similar training program. Rating of perceived exertion was measured after each training session on a 10-point scale, and the total training load was calculated by the sRPE method by multiplying training session's duration and the RPE. Subjects were divided into Glow (n = 6) or Ghigh (n = 7) groups based on median rating of RPE (3.78 ± 1.24) in low-intensity trainings. Total training load in low-intensity trainings was higher in Ghigh compared with Glow (4,010 ± 765 vs. 2,499 ± 193 arbitrary units, respectively), although total training time with (16.3 ± 0.8 hours vs. 16.0 ± 0.6 hours) or without (13.1 ± 0.9 hours vs. 13.3 ± 0.7 hours, p > 0.05, respectively to Glow and Ghigh) high-intensity sessions was not different. No significant differences were found for time spent in different heart rate zones between the 2 groups. Increases in performance were significant for both groups (p< 0.05), while the effect was large in Ghigh (+12.5%; ES = 0.74), and medium in Glow (+10.7%; ES = 0.34). Differences in the internal load and the further quantification of training load for different target intensity sessions could provide important practical information to stimulate expected adaptation in young endurance athletes.

The Impact of Chronotype on the Sleep and Training Responses of Elite Female Australian Footballers.

The primary aims of the present study were to examine the impact of chronotype on sleep/wake behaviour, perceived exertion, and training load among professional footballers. Thirty-six elite female professional football player’s (mean ± SD: age, 25 ± 4 y; weight, 68 ± 7 kg) sleep and training behaviours were examined for 10 consecutive nights during a pre-season period using a self-report online player-management system and wrist activity monitors. All athletes completed the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (rMEQ) on the first day of data collection. Eleven participants were morning types, seventeen participants were intermediate types, and three participants were evening types. Separate linear mixed models were conducted to assess differences in sleep, perceived exertion, and training behaviours between chronotype groups. Morning types woke up earlier (wake time: 07:19 ± 01:16 vs. 07:53 ± 01:01, p = 0.04) and reported higher ratings of perceived exertion compared to intermediate types (6.7 ± 1.1 vs. 5.9 ± 1.2, p = 0.01). No differences were observed between chronotype groups for bedtime, time in bed, total sleep time, sleep efficiency, training duration, or training load. In circumstances where professional female football players are required to train at a time opposing their natural circadian preference (e.g., morning type training in the evening), their perceived exertion during training may be higher than that of players that are training at a time that aligns with their natural circadian preference (e.g., evening type training in the evening). It is important for practitioners to monitor individual trends in training variables (e.g., rating of perceived exertion, training load) with relation to athlete chronotype and training time. Future research should examine the relationship between chronotype, training time, and rating of perceived exertion across different training durations.

Psychological and Physiological Changes in Response to the Cumulative Demands of a Women's Division I Collegiate Soccer Season.

McFadden, BA, Walker, AJ, Bozzini, BN, Hofacker, M, Russell, M, and Arent, SM. Psychological and physiological changes in response to the cumulative demands of a women's division I collegiate soccer season. J Strength Cond Res 36(5): 1373-1382, 2022-This study sought to determine the effects of a women's collegiate soccer season on psychological markers, biomarkers, sleep, and performance. Athletes participated in maximal countermovement vertical jump height (CMJ) assessments and biomarker monitoring in conjunction with subjective measures of psychological wellness and sleep questionnaires before preseason (S1) and every 4 weeks following (S2, S3, and S4). Training was monitored during practices and games using global positioning satellite systems and heart rate technology. Total training load was highest from S1 to S2, decreased from S2 to S3 (effect size [ES] = -2.5; p < 0.001), and remained stable from S3 to S4. CMJ declined at S2 (ES1-2 = -0.51; p = 0.001) and returned to baseline at S3. Increases from S1 to S2 were seen for creatine kinase (ES1-2 = 1.74), free testosterone (ES1-2 = 1.27), total testosterone (ES1-2 = 3.5), and free cortisol (ES1-2 = 0.88) (p < 0.03) before returning to baseline by S3 and S4 (free cortisol). Total cortisol was elevated throughout the season before declining at S4 (ES1-4 = -0.41; p = 0.03). Iron declined from S1 to S2 (ES1-2 = -0.73; p = 0.01) and returned to baseline values at S4, whereas growth hormone declined at S2 (ES1-2 = -0.50; p = 0.01) and remained depressed. Interleukin-6 increased at S4 (ES1-4 = 0.71; p = 0.02). Total training distress decreased from S1 to S2 (ES1-2 = -0.38; p = 0.02), returned to baseline by S3, and increased by S4 (ES1-4 = 0.57; p = 0.01). No changes were observed in markers of sleep (p > 0.05). Biomarkers showed notable changes after the highest workload period (S1-S2), which coincided with CMJ decrements. Biomarker perturbations preceded declines in subjective psychological wellness (S4) which occurred in the latter half of the season, indicating an accumulation of fatigue as the season progressed.

The Effectiveness of a 30-Week Concurrent Strength and Endurance Training Program in Preparation for an Ultra-Endurance Handcycling Challenge: A Case Study.

The aim of the following case study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a 30-week concurrent strength and endurance training program designed to prepare a trained H4 male handcyclist (aged 28y, bilateral, above knee amputee, and body mass 65.6kg) for a 1407-km ultra-endurance handcycling challenge. This observational case study tracked selected physiological measures, training intensity distribution, and total training load over the course of a 30-week concurrent training protocol. Furthermore, the athlete's performance profile during the ultra-endurance challenge was monitored with power output, cadence, speed, and heart rate recorded throughout. Findings revealed considerable improvements in power output at a fixed blood lactate concentration of 4mmol·L-1 (+25.7%), peak aerobic power output (+18.9%), power-to-mass ratio (+18.3%), relative peak oxygen uptake (+13.9%), gross mechanical efficiency (+4.6%), bench press 1-repetition maximum (+4.3%), and prone bench pull 1-repetition maximum (+14.9%). The athlete completed the 1407-km route in a new handcycling world record time of 89:55hours. Average speed was 18.7 (2.1)km·h-1; cadence averaged 70.0 (2.6)rpm, while average power output was 67 (12)W. In terms of internal load, the athlete's average heart rate was 111 (11)beats per minute. These findings demonstrate how a long-term concurrent strength and endurance training program can be used to optimize handcycling performance capabilities in preparation for an ultra-endurance cycling event. Knowledge emerging from this case study provides valuable information that can guide best practices with respect to handcycling training for ultra-endurance events.