Total Subperiosteal Area Research Articles

The impact of vitamin D deficiency on cortical bone area and porosity at the femoral midsection in children from post‐medieval London

AbstractObjectivesCortical bone structure undergoes dynamic changes during appositional growth and is highly sensitive to mechanical, hormonal, and nutritional influences. Vitamin D deficiency rickets can significantly disrupt the normal mineralization of newly formed bone leading to compromised bone structure. Here, we document ontogenetic trends in femoral cortical bone area and porosity during early growth and examine how vitamin D deficiency during childhood may impact these parameters in a sample of children from post‐medieval London, UK.Materials and MethodsMicro‐CT scans of the femur were collected from a documented sample of 138 children aged from birth to 8.5 years who were grouped by the presence and stage of rickets. Cross‐sections were extracted at the midsection and area and porosity measurements recorded. A local regression (LOESS) was used to fit curves to the dataset of children without rickets, which were used as comparative baselines for children with active and healed rickets.ResultsCortical bone porosity was elevated in all children with active rickets most likely reflecting delayed mineralization of osteoid and increased resorption due to secondary hyperparathyroidism. Total subperiosteal area and cortical bone area were higher in children with healed rickets than children without rickets reflecting the mineralization of osteoid following recovery from the deficiency.DiscussionThe results demonstrate marked differences in cortical bone structure in children with rickets, which vary according to age and disease stage. This study illustrates the complex interaction between metabolic bone diseases and bone formation and the importance of considering ontogenetic changes in bone structure in the study of disease during childhood.

Reconstructing Locomotor Behaviors: Cross‐sectional Property Analysis Brings More to the Story of How Earliest Euprimates Moved

As a group, modern primates demonstrate an impressive degree of ecological and behavioral flexibility. It is likely that the earliest euprimates were similarly diverse in how they moved through their environments. Attempts to reconstruct the locomotor behaviors of Eocene primates have relied heavily on comparing the external morphologies of fossilized limb bones with those of extant taxa. Though broadly informative, the application of this method may be limited by the phylogenetic constraints associated with bone length and articular surface size and shape. Alternatively, the internal structure of a long bone's diaphysis is functionally plastic during life, responding to changes in loading behaviors. Therefore, diaphyseal cross‐sectional shape analyses may provide a more accurate account of how that individual actually moved. We apply this technique to a sample of ~54.5 million year old euprimates from Vastan Lignite Mine, India. This sample of fossils falls within 2 clades of Eocene euprimates, Omomyidae and Adapoidea, and represents at least 3 described genera.Our unpaired fossil sample of 6 femora (2 Asiadapis, 2 Marcgodinotius, 2 Vastanomys) and 4 humeri (2 probable Marcgodinotius, 2 unidentified euprimates) was compared with 20 species of extant prosimians (< 1 kilogram), spanning 3 locomotor classifications (leapers, slow climbers, and non‐specialists). Vastan specimens were scanned using a Nikon XT H 225 ST micro x‐ray computed tomography (CT) scanner. From these scans, diaphyseal cross‐sectional geometric properties were calculated at 50% of femoral length and 40% of humeral length (from distal end) using MomentMacro for ImageJ, which calculates polar second moment of area (J), second moments of area about the coronal (Ix) and sagittal (Iy) planes, cortical area (CA), and total subperiosteal area (TA). Each fossil was compared to the distributions of the prosimian locomotor groups for each of the cross‐sectional properties, as well as bone length and proximal articular surface areas (estimated from linear measurements).Results of structural analyses include an unusual mosaic of locomotor indicators. The relative thickness of bone cortices (CA/TA) is high in all humeri, which is best matched among modern slow climbers. Humeri are moderately long relative to humeral head articular surface area, similar to extant slow climbers and non‐specialists. Cross‐sectional shape (Ix/Iy) of femora is variable, with the adapoids (Asiadapis and Marcgodinotius) mostly grouping with leapers and non‐specialists, while the omomyids (Vastanomys) group with slow climbers, in contrast to inferences based on some other aspects of femoral articular morphology. Femoral length relative to bending rigidity (J) or femoral head surface area is moderate to high, primarily overlapping with extant leapers and non‐specialists. These results illustrate a combination of features not found in modern prosimians and may demonstrate a unique generalist regime of movement in our earliest antecedents.Support or Funding InformationNational Geographic and Leakey FoundationThis abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2018 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Long bone cross-sectional geometric properties of Later Stone Age foragers and herder–foragers

Diaphyseal cross-sectional geometry can be used to infer activity patterns in archaeological populations. We examined the cross-sectional geometric (CSG) properties of adult Later Stone Age (LSA) herder–forager long bones from the inland lower Orange River Valley of South Africa (n=5 m, 13 f). We then compared their CSG properties to LSA forager adults from the coastal fynbos (n=23 m, 14 f) and forest (n=17 m, 19 f) regions, building on a previous report (Stock and Pfeiffer, 2004). The periosteal mould method was used to quantify total subperiosteal area, torsional strength, bilateral asymmetry and diaphyseal circularity (Imax/Imin) at the mid-distal (35%) location of upper arms (humeri) and the mid-shaft (50%) location of upper legs (femora). Maximum humerus and femur lengths were similar among the three samples, suggesting that adult stature was similar in all three regions. When compared to the previous study, CSG property values obtained using the periosteal mould method correlated well, and there were no significant differences between data collected using the different methods. No statistically significant differences were found among the humerus or femur CSG properties from the different regions. This finding suggests that all individuals undertook similar volitional habitual activities in regard to their upper limbs, and also had similar degrees of terrestrial mobility. These results indicate relative behavioural homogeneity among LSA foragers and herder– foragers from South Africa. The small degree of regional variation apparent among the three samples may reflect local ecology and the subsistence demands affecting populations in these different regions.

Development of Cortical Bone Geometry in the Human Femoral and Tibial Diaphysis

Ontogenetic growth processes in human long bones are key elements, determining the variability of adult bone structure. This study seeks to identify and describe the interaction between ontogenetic growth periods and changes in femoral and tibial diaphyseal shape. Femora and tibiae (n = 46) ranging developmentally from neonate to skeletally mature were obtained from the Norris Farms No. 36 archeological skeletal series. High-resolution X-ray computed tomography scans were collected. Whole-diaphysis cortical bone drift patterns and relative bone envelope modeling activity across ages were assessed in five cross-sections per bone (total bone length: 20%, 35%, 50%, 65%, and 80%) by measuring the distance from the section centroid to the endosteal and periosteal margins in eight sectors using ImageJ. Pearson correlations were performed to document and interpret the relationship between the cross-sectional shape (Imax /Imin ), total subperiosteal area, cortical area, and medullary cavity area for each slice location and age for both the femur and the tibia. Differences in cross-sectional shape between age groups at each cross-sectional position were assessed using nonparametric Mann-Whitney U tests. The data reveal that the femoral and tibial midshaft shape are relatively conserved throughout growth; yet, conversely, the proximal and distal femoral diaphysis and proximal tibial diaphysis appear more sensitive to developmentally induced changes in mechanical loading. Two time periods of accelerated change are identified: early childhood and prepuberty/adolescence.

The importance of accounting for the area of the medullary cavity in cross‐sectional geometry: A test based on the femoral midshaft

In cross-sectional geometric (CSG) studies, both the subperiosteal and endosteal contours are considered important factors in determining bone bending rigidity. Recently, regression equations predicting CSG properties from a section's external dimensions were developed in a world-wide sample of human long bones. The results showed high correlations between some subperiosteally derived and actual CSG parameters. We present a theoretical model that further explores the influence of endosteal dimensions on CSG properties. We compare two hypothetical femoral midshaft samples with the same total subperiosteal area but with percentages of cortical bone at the opposite ends of published human variation for population sample means. Even in this relatively uncommon scenario, the difference between the samples in the resultant means for predicted femoral polar second moment of area (J) appears to be modest: power analysis indicates that a minimum sample size of 61 is needed to detect the difference 90% of the time via a t-test. Moreover, endosteal area can be predicted--although with substantial error--from periosteal area. Despite this error, including this relationship in subperiosteally derived estimates of J produces sample mean estimates close to true mean values. Power analyses reveal that when similar samples are used to develop prediction equations, a minimum sample of hundreds or more may be needed to distinguish a predicted mean J from the true mean J. These results further justify the use of regression equations estimating J from periosteal contours when analyzing behaviorally induced changes in bone rigidity in ancient populations, when it is not possible to measure endosteal dimensions. However, in other situations involving comparisons of individual values, growth trends, and senescence, where relative cortical thickness may vary greatly, inclusion of endosteal dimensions is still important.

Bilateral asymmetry in the limb bones of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)

There is much debate in behavioral primatology on the existence of population-level handedness in chimpanzees. The presence or absence of functional laterality in great apes may shed light on the origins of human handedness and on the evolution of cerebral asymmetry. The plasticity of long bone diaphyses in response to mechanical loading allows the functional interpretation of differences in cross-sectional geometric. While left-right asymmetry in upper limb diaphyseal morphology is a known property in human populations, it remains relatively unexplored in apes. We studied bilateral asymmetry in 64 skeletons of wild-caught chimpanzee using the humerus, second metacarpal, and femur. The total subperiosteal area (TA) of the diaphyses was measured at 40% of maximum humeral length and at the midshaft of the metacarpals and femora using external silicone molds. Overall, the TA values of the left humeri were significantly greater than the right, indicating directional asymmetry. This effect was even greater when the magnitude of difference in TA between each pair of humeri was compared. The right second metacarpals showed a tendency toward greater area than did the left, but this did not reach statistical significance. The lack of asymmetry in the femur serves as a lower limb control, and suggests that the upper limb results are not a product of fluctuating asymmetry. These findings imply behavioral laterality in upper limb function in chimpanzees, and suggest a complementary relationship between precision and power.

Regional variation of intracortical porosity in the midshaft of the human femur: age and sex differences.

This study investigated age and sex differences in patterns of porosity distribution in the midshaft of the human femur. Cross-sections were obtained from 168 individuals from a modern Australian population. The sample comprised 73 females and 95 males, aged between 20 and 97 years. Microradiographs were made of 100-microm sections and pore and bone areas were determined using image processing software. Initially the sample was divided by age: young (20-44 years), middle (45-64 years) and old (65+ years), but it was found that analysis on the basis of the ratio of medullary area to total subperiosteal area gave clearer results. The cortex was divided into three rings radially and into octants circumferentially and the porosity of each segment was calculated. Results showed that a pattern with raised porosity in the posterior and anterolateral regions, and with greater porosity in the inner parts of the cortex, becomes more pronounced with age. In males this pattern develops steadily; in females there are much greater differences between the middle and older groups than earlier in life. The patterns observed are consistent with progressive bone loss occurring along a neutral axis of the cortex where bending stress is lowest and the mechanical advantage of the bone is least.

Determination of age at death using combined morphology and histology of the femur.

Bone is characterised by age-related morphological and histological changes. We have previously established an automated method of recording bone morphometry and histology from entire transverse sections of cortical bone. Our aim was to determine whether data acquired using this automated system were useful in the prediction of age. Ninety-six specimens of human femoral middiaphysis were studied from subjects aged 21-92 y. Equations predicting specimen age were constructed using macroscopic data (total subperiosteal area (TSPA), periosteal perimeter (PP), endosteal perimeter (EP), cortical bone area (CA) and moments of area) and microscopic data (the number, size and diversity of pores and intracortical porosity) together with sex, height and weight. Both TSPA and PP were independent predictors of age but the number of pores was not a significant predictor of age in any equation. The age predicted by these equations was inaccurate by more than 8 y in over half the subjects. We conclude that we could not predict age at a clinically acceptable level using data from our automated system. This most likely reflects an insensitivity to regional age-related changes in bone histology because we recorded data from each entire cortex. Automated bone measurement according to cortical region might be more useful in the prediction of age. The inclusion of TSPA together with PP as independent predictors of age raises the possibility that a future measure of periosteal shape at the femoral diaphysis could also be helpful in the prediction of age. The accuracy reached with the relatively simple methods described here is sufficient to encourage the development of image-analysis systems for the automatic detection of more complex features.

Age-related changes in cortical porosity of the midshaft of the human femur.

Complete cross-sections from the femoral midshaft of 180 individuals of known height and weight, aged 21-97 y, from a modern Australian population were examined using automatic video image analysis to quantify total subperiosteal porosity (TSPP). More specifically, the aim was to investigate whether age changes were similar in both sexes in (1) total subperiosteal area (TSPA), cortical area (CA) and medullary area (MA), (2) intracortical porosity (ICP), and (3) the respective contributions to TSPP made by MA and intracortical void area (ICVA). Our findings indicated that both sexes showed a significantly greater height normalised TSPA in the 70s as compared with the 20s. Males had consistently larger bones with a greater height normalised CA. In both sexes CA showed a tendency to increase till the 7th decade and then to decline, more so in females. MA approximately trebled in females and doubled in males over the age range studied. Although ICP also increased, from 4-6% in young adults to over 9% in the elderly, it showed a significant difference between the sexes only in the 3rd decade, being greater in males at this stage. By contrast, TSPP became significantly greater in females (from that recorded in the 3rd decade) by the time they reached the 50s, while in males this did not occur till the 80s. It increased from approximately 25% in young adults of both sexes to approximately 50% in females and approximately 37% in males in their 80s. However, in the elderly there was great variability in both sexes in the appearance of bones from individuals of similar chronological age. Some bones differed little from those in younger subjects, others showed greatly increased ICP, still others displayed reduced cortical widths with low ICP. The femoral midshaft resembles other skeletal sites in that age changes in TSPP are more marked in females than males.

The relationship of in vivo bone strain to mandibular corpus morphology in Macaca fascicularis

Inferred patterns of mandibular bone stress derived from in vivo strain data are related to size and shape variation in the mandibular corpus of Macaca fascicularis . Size and shape are described in mechanical terms from the cross-sectional contours of compact bone at seven locations along the mandibular corpus. Area moments of inertia and section moduli are related to bending moment arms, cortical area is related to variation in total subperiosteal area, and an estimate of torsional strength is calculated. The distribution of masticatory stress in the macaque corpus is hypothesized to be highly inequitable; the symphysis and the most posterior region of the corpus (i.e., at the M 2 and M 3 ) are probably subjected to the highest normal stresses in lateral and parasagittal bending, respectively. The distribution of torsional shear stress in the mandible is difficult to model theoretically, although it is likely that these stresses also vary in magnitude in different regions of the corpus. These data indicate that the inference of masticatory stress patterns from purely morphological criteria in the absence of experimental corroboration is problematic. It is unlikely that regional variation in corpus mechanical properties directly reflects local differences in the relative magnitudes of different masticatory stress regimes.

A quantitative assessment of cross‐sectional cortical bone remodeling in the femoral diaphysis following hip arthroplasty in elderly females

A quantitative assessment of cross-sectional cortical bone remodeling in the femoral diaphysis following hip arthroplasty was made by direct in vitro measurements of cross-sectional geometric properties. We obtained eight femora from four female cadavers ranging in age from 77 to 96 years. In three cases unilateral uncemented Austin Moore implants were used, and in one case a unilateral cemented Thompson prosthesis had been implanted. The time of implantation in the two specimens where this information could be obtained was greater than 40 months. Sections were made at 12 diaphyseal locations from the superior aspect of the lesser trochanter through the distal diaphysis. Section properties (areas and second moments of area, or area moments of inertia) were determined by tracing photographs of the cross-sections with a digitizer. In this sample of prosthetic femora, we found reductions in both total subperiosteal area (TA) and endosteal area (ENDA) relative to the contralateral unoperated side in most sections distal to the lesser trochanter. The average pairwise reduction in ENDA for this region was 21.1 mm2, reaching statistical significance in one distal diaphyseal section. The average decline in TA in this region was 10.2 mm2. Because the reduction in endosteal dimensions was generally greater than the reduction in subperiosteal dimensions, cortical area (CA) was maintained or increased throughout the distal 80% of this region in prosthetic femora with an average increase in CA of 9.3 mm2, reaching statistical significance in one mid-diaphyseal section. A completely different pattern of remodeling occurred in the two most proximal sections through the lesser trochanter and base of the femoral neck.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Biomechanics of cross‐sectional size and shape in the hominoid mandibular corpus

Mandibular cross sections of Pan, Pongo, Gorilla, Homo, and two fossil specimens of Paranthropus were examined by computed tomography (CT) to determine the biomechanical properties of the hominoid mandibular corpus. Images obtained by CT reveal that while the fossil hominids do not differ significantly from extant hominoids in the relative contribution of compact bone to total subperiosteal area, the shape of the Paranthropus corpora indicates that the mechanical design of the robust australopithecine mandible is fundamentally distinct from that of modern hominoids in terms of its ability to resist transverse bending and torsion. It is also apparent that, among the modern hominoids, interspecific and sexual differences in corpus shape are not significant from a biomechanical perspective. While ellipse models have been used previously to describe the size, shape, and subsequent biomechanical properties of the corpus, the present study shows that such models do not predict the biomechanical properties of corpus cross-sectional geometry in an accurate or reliable manner. The traditional "robusticity" index of the mandibular corpus is of limited utility for biomechanical interpretations. The relationship of compact bone distribution in the corpus to dimensions such as mandibular length and arch width may provide a more functionally meaningful definition of mandibular robusticity.

Cortical bone growth and dietary stress among subadults from Nubia's Batn El Hajar.

Cortical bone growth is analyzed for 174 children from a Medieval Christian population at Kulubnarti in the Batn el Hajar of Sudanese Nubia (550-1450 AD). Using the tibia as a representative long bone, total subperiosteal area, cortical area, medullary area, and percent cortical area at midshaft were calculated. While growth in total and cortical areas, as well as in length, appear to be fairly well maintained, percent cortical area reveals unusual growth patterns which reflect excessive endosteal resorption. Compared to the relative reduction in bone mass which has been observed in malnourished living children, as well as with previously reported evidence for stress in the Kulubnarti population, the present data support an interpretation of nutritionally related stress and of no major diachronic dietary change.

The State of the Art of Bone Identification by Chemical and Microscopic Methods

Abstract Traditionally, identification of skeletal remains has been based on distinguishing morphological characteristics. In the past three decades there has been a greater development of techniques used in identification. In part, this effort has been stimulated by the practical need to identify a large number of dead from major wars and by the employment of statistical methods such as multivariate analysis. In addition, new morphological criteria are continually being discovered which will aid the investigator by assigning a racial or sexual classification to bones. Examples of these are tear duct size [2] and total subperiosteal area of the second metacarpal [3]. Although the latter technique is not fully developed, it offers great promise.

Differential sexual dimorphism in bone diameters of subjects of European and African ancestry.

AbstractThe 1,589 low‐income adult subjects of primarily African ancestry (American Negroes or “Blacks”) showed systematically less sexual dimorphism in total subperiosteal area (TA), medullary area (MA) and cortical area (CA) than did 4,379 low‐income adult subjects of European derivation (“Whites”). These systematic findings have implications both to the sexing of skeletal remains from diverse populations and to an understanding of population divergences in bone remodeling.