Total Station Research Articles

Сопоставление эффективности использования современных геодезических методов в изучении последствий бобровой деятельности на малых реках

Multiple increase in the beaver population on the East European Plain has led to the appearance of a large number of beaver dams and ponds on small rivers. At present, the problem of regulating small rivers in this region remains poorly studied due to the above circumstances. This study presents the results of a comparison of modern geodetic methods obtained using an electronic total station, GNSS equipment and UAVs. The small river Morkvashinka, flowing along the northern tip of the Volga Upland, was chosen as the object of the study. The spatial coordinates and altitudes measured by the GNSS receiver generally agree well with the tacheometric survey data. The height difference is 0.5 cm (standard deviation – 0.07). However, the main disadvantage of an electronic total station, which limits its use for surveying linearly elongated objects and small river valleys, is the lack of direct visibility of the objects being photographed from the device due to the highly dissected territory, the tortuosity of the river and dense vegetation. Using orthophoto and digital terrain models obtained from unmanned aerial vehicles, it is not always possible to accurately determine the border of the coastline, as well as the absolute heights of the dam, floodplain, terraces, water edge, channel marks (pond depth) due to dense vegetation. However, the river bed and floodplain, beaver dams and ponds are clearly visible on them.

Creation of virtual models of buildings for the formation of unified real estate complexes as a part of land and cadastral works

The article presents the results of the research project to create 3D models of buildings from digital images using a smartphone camera and the Agisoft Photoscan Professional software, comparing them with data obtained with an electronic total station. The authors outlined the possibilities of using the described technologies for the development of 3D cadastre, which can simplify creation of virtual models through the adaptation of modern widgets. The technological sequence of creating a building model in a virtual format and the accuracy of linear measurements are considered here. The paper contains the results of determining the area and the value of the mean square error. The authors presume that these technologies can be used for the development of 3D cadastre in the formation of unified real estate complexes as a part of land cadastral works, as well as for design and reconstruction solutions.

ПРИМЕНЕНИЕ МЕТОДОВ ИНЖЕНЕРНОЙ ГЕОФИЗИКИ ПРИ ОЦЕНКЕ ТЕХНИЧЕСКОГО СОСТОЯНИЯ СООРУЖЕНИЙ ИНЖЕНЕРНОЙ ЗАЩИТЫ ШАПСУГСКОГО ВОДОХРАНИЛИЩА

Purpose: to apply engineering geophysics methods based on the assessment of reliability parameters using non-destructive testing to identify the state of the engineering protection structures of the Shapsug reservoir. Materials and methods. The materials for the study were non-destructive testing data performed at different times of the year at the Shapsug reservoir, using “Oko-3” ground penetrating radar, “Pulsar-2.2” unit, Sokkia CX-105 total station, Nokta Invenio Smart and PSG-MG4 static action penetrometer. During the inspection, attention is drawn to the presence of such defects and damages as: violation of the geometric dimensions of the element or structure section; presence of deformation of an element or structure as a whole; formation and decompaction of the voids; landslide processes; visual dynamic damage; various cracks and the size of their opening; concrete and metal structures corrosion, etc. Results. The engineering-geophysical method for assessing the technical condition of the engineering protection structures of the Shapsug reservoir has been carried out. The state of the connection between earthworks and concrete structures and the temperature-sedimentation joints between concrete and reinforced concrete structures, affecting their stability, has been studied. Radiograms of collapse sites that arose as a result of accidents and were eliminated during the reconstruction of the dam were obtained. Conclusions. It was determined on the results obtained, that the geophysical complex makes it possible to study earthen low-head dams when determining various soil parameters, and most importantly, to identify the position and size of various defects inside the earth foundation of the dam. The identified difficulties were successfully resolved using a combined geophysical method, and the main problem is the compilation and adaptation of this method for a specific object.

НАБЛЮДЕНИЯ ЗА ДЕФОРМАЦИЯМИ СООРУЖЕНИЙ В ЗОНЕ СТРОИТЕЛЬСТВА МЕТРОПОЛИТЕНА Г. АЛМАТЫ

The article presents the results of monitoring the condition of surface buildings and structures during the construction and operation of the Almaty metro located within a radius of 80 meters. In such a situation, the problem of managing geodynamic processes during the construction and operation of the subway can be solved on the basis of the methodology of conducting geodetic monitoring of the condition of engineering structures considered in this article. It is shown that when conducting geodetic monitoring and monitoring of deformations of engineering structures using modern geodetic instruments such as global navigation satellite systems, electronic total stations, laser levels, it will allow obtaining information about the ongoing deformation processes of buildings and structures located in close proximity to the metro under construction and in operation with a high degree of accuracy, which will ensure timely management decisions solutions for long-term and safe operation.

A Method for Evaluating Global Navigation Satellite System Position Accuracy in Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems

Highlights A novel UAS-based GNSS testing system was developed to assess both horizontal and vertical accuracy components. Recommendations are provided for further standard development related to UAS GNSS testing protocols. Future research can utilize this framework to enhance understanding of UAS GNSS accuracy. Abstract. Current standards for Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) testing are primarily designed for assessing horizontal positioning accuracy in ground-based applications. However, there is a notable absence of guidelines specifically addressing vertical accuracy assessment and applications that extend beyond ground-based scenarios, including those involving small unmanned aircraft systems (UAS). This effort aimed to develop a UAS-based GNSS testing system, tailored for the evaluation of GNSS receiver performance in dynamic low-altitude scenarios. The main objectives included (1) designing a GNSS testing system for UAS applications and (2) validating the system through field testing. The system development consisted of GNSS receiver configuration, data acquisition system design, processing procedures, and UAS payload and base station component design. The UAS payload featured multiple GNSS receivers operating in different modes, and data were collected using a custom Python script on a Raspberry Pi computer. For in-field validation, dynamic flight testing with vertical profiles was conducted. A robotic tracking total station (TTS) was used as the reference instrument for measuring the location of the UAS payload. The findings underscore the system's capabilities, primarily emphasizing its functionality rather than conducting an extensive assessment of the individual GNSS receiver performance. The UAS-based testing system that was developed was capable of satisfying most of the criteria for existing GNSS test standards. The insights derived from this process offer recommendations for standardizing UAS-based GNSS testing methods, with a particular focus on mission design, battery management, data processing, and environmental adaptability. Keywords: Dynamic Error, Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), Positioning Accuracy, Tracking Total Station (TTS), Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS).

3D Monitoring Model for Real‐Time Displacement of Metro Tunnel under “Dual Carbon” Background

Real‐time automatic displacement monitoring of metro tunnels is vital for ensuring operational safety and contributes to carbon reduction goals by improving system efficiency. This study focuses on key monitoring elements such as displacement, settlement, convergence, and cracking. Through the analysis of continuous monitoring data, a real‐time displacement monitoring model for metro tunnels based on robotic total stations is proposed. This model can timely identify potential risks, thereby ensuring the safe operation of tunnels and reducing carbon emissions from unnecessary maintenance operations, thereby reducing the carbon footprint of metro operations. This article takes the Jinan Metro Tunnel Displacement Real‐time Monitoring Project in China as a case study and constructs a comprehensive monitoring framework using robotic total stations, intelligent automated deformation monitoring data collectors, and cloud servers. The implementation details of the project, displacement monitoring principles, monitoring system construction, and data analysis processes are elaborated in detail. Taking the monitoring data of Jinan Metro Line 2 from April 1, 2022, to May 31, 2023, as an example, the results show that the tunnel displacement is within the safe range, verifying the practical application value of the method proposed in this paper. It can effectively ensure the safe operation of the metro and promote sustainable development and low‐carbon metro construction.

The Concepts of Planning in Architecture and Environtment to Mitigate Tsunami Disaster Case Study: Semawang Beach, Denpasar, Bali

Bali won the title of “World's Favorite Tourist Destination Destination” at the 2020 PVK Award. This title is inseparable from the many natural and cultural tourist objects that attract local and foreign tourists to visit Bali, one of which is Semawang Beach, Denpasar. The wide, white and shallow coastal area, calm sea conditions, a favorite place to enjoy the sunrise, the many gazebos and tourism accommodations, the location near Ngurah Rai International Airport is the main attraction for tourists. However, according to information from the Head of the National BMKG Prof. Dwikorita Karnawati said that the southern region of East Java and Bali, including Semawang Beach, has the threat of an earthquake accompanied by a tsunami in the future which we cannot predict exactly when it will occur. Based on this, it can be concluded that what is the solution, especially from the engineering side, especially architecture, which creates beaches that are safe for tourists to visit in the form of permeable architectural and environmental models that support tsunami disaster mitigation. Specifically for the first year, the existing model will be evaluated first so that it is hoped that in the second year a permeable design model will be produced. This study uses a descriptive qualitative approach using observation data, surveys, and documents. The research instruments were coastal base maps, total station tools, laser meters, stationery, autocad and 3d sketchup software, cameras and computers. The research which is planned for 9 months in the first year is expected to produce findings of evaluation of existing permeable architectural and environmental models in supporting tsunami disaster mitigation in the Semawang Beach area, Denpasar in terms of evacuation rescue routes, protective areas, safe zones, open spaces, facilities general disaster response, and determinants of disaster response in spatial planning and buildings.

GEODETIC RESEARCH OF THE SMOKESTACK TILT OF THE BOILER HOUSE ON KARNAUKHOVA STREET IN RIVNE

Smokestackеs are extraordinary and technologically important construction structures. Their safe operation is a prerequisite for long-term and trouble-free operation of a boiler house and the provision of heat to entire city districts. The purpose of this paper is to study the smokestack tilt of a boiler house using geodetic methods. The relevance of this research is in the fact that the smokestack tilt a dangerous factor that can lead to its destruction due to loss of stability or due to the force exceeding the maximum resistance. The destruction of such a structure can cause significant economic or even human losses.
 A preliminary calculation of the accuracy of geodetic work to determine the smokestack's tilt on M. Karnaukhova Street was performed. Based on the calculation results, an electronic total station Leica TCR 1205 was selected. A modified coordinate method was used to determine the position of a large number of points on the outer surface of the smokestack for each horizontal section. The measurement results are balanced by the parametric method of the least squares method. This method is implemented in the "Kren" software module developed by the authors.
 Three measurement cycles were performed in 2021, 2022, and 2023. The value of the tilt (about 200 mm) is quite noticeable for this smokestack with a bottom section diameter of 3.65 m. The smokestack is tilted in the direction from which the mobile communication equipment is installed. The balanced tilt value differs from the value calculated from the outermost observation points from the station. Tilt monitoring data should be considered as an integral part of the chimney building information system (BIM).

Study on the application of TLS for bridge deflection inspection in Vietnam

Inspecting defects, geometric size discrepancies compared to the design profile, and displacement under theload of the bridge structure aims to gather information and current data before putting the bridge into operation. However, the quality of inspection on the structure size performed by traditional methods usually takes time consuming and potentially unsafe due to difficulties in accessing because the bridge dimension is high and the rugged terrain is challenging, especially with bridges crossing rivers, deep valleys, etc. Therefore, applying modern, effective, and reliable inspection methods is essentially required. The Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) is a technique to quickly and accurately gather topographic data points of objects’ surfaces. TLS is applied in many survey fields, including surveying the structure of bridge engineering. To evaluate the effectiveness of applying TLS, the research conducted a determination of the main span P61-62’s deflection of the balance casting bridge crossing the Vong intersection of the urban traffic bridge project Ring Road 2, Hanoi city during static load testing. Three methods to determine the deflection of the bridge span structure were implemented (1) Using dial indicators; (2) Using a total station to measure points reflecting attached to the structure of the bridge girder; (3) Applying TLS to inspect the structure at the time of no load and load. The results led to the conclusion that TLS methodology facilitates the determination of the bridge deflection with acceptable accuracy.

Topographic Measurements and Statistical Analysis in Static Load Testing of Railway Bridge Piers

The aim of the paper is to identify a suitable method for assessing the deformation of structures (buildings, bridges, walls, etc.) by means of topographic measurements of significant targets positioned on the infrastructure under consideration. In particular, the paper describes an approach to testing a bridge in a mixed structure (concrete and steel). The methodological approach developed can be schematised into the following main phases: (i) surveying using total stations (TSs) in order to obtain the spatial coordinates of the targets by means of the three-dimensional intersection technique (planimetric and altimetric measurements); (ii) least-squares compensation for the measurements performed; (iii) displacement analysis; and (iv) statistical evaluation of the reliability of the results. This method was evaluated on a case study of a newly built double-track railway bridge, located near the metropolitan area of the city of Bari, Italy, during various loading and unloading activities. The results obtained, evaluated by means of certain statistical tests, made it possible to verify the structural suitability of the bridge.

Augmentation approaches for geodetic permanent monitoring systems in dynamic urban environments

The consolidation of Building Information Modelling (BIM) on construction sites and the preparation of the Internet-of-Things (IoT) in urban city planning are on-going processes. Therefore, the operation of modern total stations in dynamic urban scenarios becomes inevitable and often reveals the limitations of state-of-the-art approaches. This paper discusses augmentation strategies for the automatic operation of total stations. Additional internal sensor information and external facility information can be used to increase the resilience of the systems and enable them to adapt to changing circumstances. This is demonstrated by the examples of a changing prism orientation due to vandalism, local refraction effects due to air-conditioning and dynamic obstructions due to traffic.

Особенности производства геодезических работ в горной местности

The authors discuss the features and problems of conducting geodetic surveys under specific mountain conditions and outline possible ways to improve the efficiency of the work. The hard-to-reach areas and significant elevation differences are the main difficulties of making measurements in the mountains. These factors negatively affect the accuracy, efficiency and cost of all surveying methods. It is stated that the most effective one of them in the mountains is that of spatial linear-angular measurements. This method enables performing entire complex of coordinate determinations using a total station only. The deviations of the plumb lines and vertical refraction decrease the trigonometric leveling accuracy and limit the field of spatial linear-angular measurements application. It is necessary to develop a technology for designing such a network in mountainous localities, which includes taking into account the influence of plumb lines deviation and vertical refraction error

Study on the Application in the Protection and Renewal of Ancient Architectural Cultural Heritage in the Age of Smart Media

Abstract In this paper, the candidate region network in the Fast R-CNN algorithm is used to obtain the feature values of surface damage of ancient buildings, and the regression algorithm is applied to the target bounding box after the features are successfully obtained, which can more accurately complete the task of detecting and locating the damage on the surface of buildings. The three-dimensional laser scanner and total station are used to explore the surrounding environment of the buildings on the site, and the sketch is drawn according to the research and analysis results combined with the exploration to design a digital archive of the cultural heritage of the ancient buildings. Aiming at the ambiguity of the assessment system of the integrity of ancient buildings, we constructed the assessment system of the cultural heritage of ancient buildings with the fuzzy affiliation of the data of the integrity of ancient buildings and multilevel fusion assessment and carried out an example analysis of the research on the protection of the cultural heritage of ancient buildings in the era of smart media. The results show that when the number of iterations is 15000, the mAP value is 0.9411 (where 1 represents the maximum AP value), which is higher than the training results with the number of iterations of 20000 and 25000, i.e., the Faster R-CNN training model has good applicability for the autonomous visual detection of the damage on the surface of the ancient buildings. “Q9 I will not damage the ancient buildings in Zhuge Village” has the highest mean value of 4.71 and the highest approval rate of 99.1, and the standard deviation of each question item is small, i.e., it indicates that there is a high degree of consistency in the positive attitudes of residents towards the protection of the cultural heritage of ancient buildings. This study contributes new ideas to the protection of ancient architectural, cultural heritage and tourism development, which is crucial for advancing the research field.

Mine-Rescue Stations in Kuzbass in 1922–1934

In the early 1920s, Russia moved on from the New Economic Policy to industrialization. The Kuznetsk Coal Basin needed an advanced mine-rescue system to support its growing coal industry. This research focused on the chain of decisions made by the state authorities to expand the mine-rescue stations network across the USSR. The authors used the examples of mine-rescue stations in Anzhero-Sudzhensk, Leninskiy, and Kemerovo to describe the formation and development of respiratory and supporting rescue teams. Archival sources made it possible to restore the quantitative composition, wage system, and funding sources of the Kuzbass mine-rescue service in July 1, 1924, as well as to identify the first management team. The mine-rescue development followed the expansion of the coal industry under the efficient state control provided by the centralized mining supervision. By the beginning of the second five-year industrial plan, Kuzbass was responsible for 8.5 % of the total mine-rescue stations in the country. The Kuzbass region owed its wide and efficient network of mine-rescue stations to the financial and organizational support of the state.

Coarse Alignment Methodology of Point Cloud Based on Camera Position/Orientation Estimation Model.

This study presents a methodology for the coarse alignment of light detection and ranging (LiDAR) point clouds, which involves estimating the position and orientation of each station using the pinhole camera model and a position/orientation estimation algorithm. Ground control points are obtained using LiDAR camera images and the point clouds are obtained from the reference station. The estimated position and orientation vectors are used for point cloud registration. To evaluate the accuracy of the results, the positions of the LiDAR and the target were measured using a total station, and a comparison was carried out with the results of semi-automatic registration. The proposed methodology yielded an estimated mean LiDAR position error of 0.072 m, which was similar to the semi-automatic registration value of 0.070 m. When the point clouds of each station were registered using the estimated values, the mean registration accuracy was 0.124 m, while the semi-automatic registration accuracy was 0.072 m. The high accuracy of semi-automatic registration is due to its capability for performing both coarse alignment and refined registration. The comparison between the point cloud with refined alignment using the proposed methodology and the point-to-point distance analysis revealed that the average distance was measured at 0.0117 m. Moreover, 99% of the points exhibited distances within the range of 0.0696 m.

ASSESSING THE ACCURACY OF UAV SURVEYS WITH DIFFERENT CONFIGURATIONS

Abstract. Recently, developments in airborne sensors and easy-to-fly, reliable, low-cost commercial UAVs have opened a new era for precise aerial mapping. The restricted payload capacity of low-cost UAVs imposes constraints on the quality of their navigation systems and the sensors they can carry. Therefore, the quality of photogrammetric products generated from UAV surveys needs to be assessed. In this study, photogrammetric mapping principles are employed in collecting, processing, and analyzing optical images collected using two UAV surveying systems. The first system was a 3DR Iris+ drone flying at 25 meters above the ground. The second system was a homemade drone similar to Tuffwing flying at about 70 meters above the ground. Both systems carried a Canon PowerShot S100 using a fixed 5.2 focal length. About 30 ground points were surveyed with a TS02 total station and served as the ground truth for data evaluation. After the flights, data was proceeded and geospatial products including DEMs and orthophotos produced were evaluated. Different ground control configurations were examined and ground check-points were used to evaluate the final accuracy of the geospatial products. The comparison of the derived 3D information from captured data with ground measurements showed a high correlation between the accuracy of the 3D products and the sensor specification, flying altitude, as well as image layout. This was supported by comparisons between actual errors and theoretical positional precision based on flying height, photo scale and air base was conducted.

PLANIMETRIC RAIL POSITIONING USING UAV PHOTOGRAMMETRY: TOWARDS AUTOMATED AND SAFE RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE MONITORING

Abstract. The maintenance of railway infrastructure requires detailed inspection of track assets including the rails, sleepers, fasteners, and tie plates. Current methods using total stations and measurement trains are costly and the subsequent data processing is often manual. A potent alternative is the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) to investigate track asset deviations. However, the potential degree of automation and the overall accuracy is still very much the subject of ongoing research. In this work, a potential pipeline is investigated for the planimetric inspection of rails using UAV photogrammetry. Specifically, state-of-the-art line detectors such as Holistically-Nested Edge Detection, DexiNed, Segment Anything Model, and Mobile Line Segment Detection are combined with logical filtering to assess the localisation and gauge of the rails. The experiments indicate that the accuracy and detection rate are promising. Overall, the proposed method is a promising step towards affordable and safe railway infrastructure inspection.

GENERATION OF 3-D LARGE-SCALE MAPS USING LIDAR POINT CLOUD DATA

Abstract. 3-Dimensional geospatial data is essential for creating and utilizing real-world visualizations for analyzing infrastructure design improvements. However, techniques exist such as Total Station, Global Positioning System (GPS), and Google Earth data. Traditionally 3D maps were constructed using simple measurements of angles and distances, providing a planimetric representation of the area with a limited number of cross-sections to reflect the built-up area. However, Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) is an efficient technique for capturing dense point clouds to construct detailed information models for large-scale built-up areas. In recent years, advancements in the measurement of speed, reduction of size and cost, and portability of these technologies have revolutionized 3-D data collection. This article discusses the methodological framework and 3-D mapping accuracy by adopting terrestrial laser scanning to map a built-up area having different features. Point cloud data collected in the form of scans were processed and registered using Faro Scene software with an overall registration error of 14 mm (RMSE). Finally, it creates a 3-D map of the built-up area having planimetric and elevation accuracy analyses. It will be used for spatial analyses or simulating the interaction of surface and subsurface processes contributing to urban and rural planning development in a 3-D GIS environment and for smart cities. The method presented here provides a different way for achieving large-scale maps with greater accuracy, which will be applicable in identifying and monitoring the deformations in the built-up areas and in various disaster mitigation.

VIRTUAL REALITY (VR) ASSISTED GEOMATICS LAB DEVELOPMENT

Abstract. Virtual Reality (VR) lab components provide the opportunity to explore the efficacy of this technology on Geomatics education and lay the groundwork for the VR as an emerging education paradigm. Geomatics education at UF has been innovatively optimized towards a hybrid education system, with most of the curriculum taught using distance communication. Nevertheless, Geomatics teaching still involves intensive indoor and outdoor lab components. VR labs enable learning and practicing lab techniques as an alternative or supplement to live lab activities. These technically and physically demanding activities require intensive training on expensive lab equipment. The labs often go beyond allocated lab time and are susceptible to bad weather conditions. Using VR technology provides an integrated learning experience that mixes instructions with simulated physical activities, eliminating many limitations associated with lab instruction. In this study, we demonstrate the development of the total station device centring and levelling lab activity using the Meta Quest 2 Headset on the Unity Software Development Platform, as well as Unity’s XR Interaction Toolkit. Development challenges related to different setup components (e.g., bubble-level setup, effective gravity for editing tripod placement, component intractability) are presented. Among multiple challenges of using Unity for the development of an educational VR application, adjusting the functions of the XR Toolkit in order to get the desired outcomes stands as one of the largest difficulties. Unity’s physics is not intuitive for the intended purposes of this project, so multiple technical workarounds were required including the use of Unity’s UI (User Interface) features.

Astronomical Alignments from Structures Surrounding Giant Animal Effigy Mounds at El Paraiso, Peru

Abstract We previously reported astronomical alignments with the principal temple of the archaeological site of El Paraiso in coastal Peru. Here we describe a new investigation of nine small platform mounds associated with the two giant animal effigy mounds at the site. A total station map of the site permits possible astronomical alignments to be measured directly from the AutoCAD map by Pixelstick or AutoCAD. We corrected alignments for obliquity and for the apparent curvature of the sun and moon over the crest of nearby ridges. Azimuths for astronomical events were obtained from Starry Night Pro Plus 6.4.3. We found that 13 of 14 alignments were within 1° of the predicted astronomical values (and all 14 were within 1.5°). To account for these findings and those of the giant animal platform effigy mounds at the site, we propose a cosmology in the Late Preceramic period of solar and lunar alignments and the linkage of supernatural animals to dark cloud constellations. The building of these mounds was directed by astronomer priests. A shared belief in a cosmology that included a punishing force may have eased transactions by engendering trust among individuals living across river valleys and at different altitudes.