Total Sampling Period Research Articles

Returning ryegrass to continuous cropping soil improves soil nutrients and soil microbiome, producing good-quality flue-cured tobacco.

The widespread and continuous cultivation of tobacco has led to soil degradation and reduced crop yields and quality. Green manure is an essential organic fertilizer that alleviates obstacles to continuous cultivation. However, the plant-soil microecological effects of green manure on flue-cured tobacco cultivation remain unclear. Thus, a positioning trail including two treatments, chemical fertilizer application only (treatment NPK) and chemical fertilizer application with turning ryegrass (treatment NPKG) was conducted, and the effect of ryegrass returning on the soil physicochemical properties, soil microbiome, crop yield, and quality of flue-cured tobacco in continuous cropping soil were investigated. Results showed that returning ryegrass to the field increased the thickness of soil humus layer from 13 cm to 15 cm, reduced the humus layer soil bulk density to 1.29 cm3/g. Ryegrass tilled and returned to the field increased soil organic matter content by 6.89-7.92%, increased rhizosphere soil available phosphorus content by 2.22-17.96%, and converted the soil non-exchangeable potassium into potassium that was available for plant absorption and utilization. Ryegrass tilling and returning to the field increased the potassium content of middle leaves of flue-cured tobacco by 7.69-10.07%, the increased potassium content in flue-cured tobacco was accompanied by increased total sugar, reducing sugar, and the ratio of reducing sugar to nicotine, which facilitated the harmonization of the chemical composition of cured tobacco leaves. Moreover, the increased number of markedly improved operational taxonomic units enhanced the complexity of the soil bacterial community and its compactness after ryegrass tillage and their return to the field. The available potassium, available phosphorus, total potassium content, pH, and sampling period of the rhizosphere soil had considerable effects on the rhizosphere microbial. Ryegrass tilling and returning to the field changed the soil microbiome, which increased the abundance of bulk soil Proteobacteria, rhizosphere soil Fibrobacterota, and microbes with anti-pathogen activity (Lysobacteria, Sphingomonas, Chaetomium, and Minimedusa); and reduced the abundance of pathogenic fungi Neocosmospore genus in the soil. In brief, ryegrass returned to the field, improved soil microecology and restored soil nutrients, and established a new dynamic balance of soil ecology, thereby improving the quality of cultivated land and the quality of flue-cured tobacco.

Premature Deindustrialization or Reindustrialization in China’s Latecomer Provinces

This study investigates whether latecomer provinces in China have experienced premature deindustrialization or reindustrialization by examining the positions of the provincial industry-income nexus using the latecomer index. The latecomer index facilitates the identification of the downward (premature deindustrialization) and upward (reindustrialization) positions of the nexus for latecomer provinces. The empirical analysis reveals that, for the nationwide level, the premature deindustrialization effect remains during the total sample period of 1992–2020 reflecting the initial regime prioritizing eastern coastal industrialization, whereas the pace of the premature deindustrialization is slowed down in the periods of 2002–2020 and 2009–2020 due to a series of industrial policies under the subsequent regime. At the regional level, the reindustrialization impact dominates the premature deindustrialization effect in the eastern and central regions, whereas this effect dominates the reindustrialization impact in the western region. The study identifies the existence of reindustrialization in China in the regional analysis, whereas extant literature on reindustrialization focuses only on European cases.

Overview of Religious Activities of Students in Makassar in the Third Year of Covid-19

Aims: This study aims to describe the religious activities of students at a public institution in MakassarMethods: This descriptive survey was conducted on students who are actively registered and willing to be respondents with a total sampling period of 30 days (26 September - 28 October 2022) (n = 1,207). Informed consent was given by the team both offline and online. The religious activity questionnaire was given in the form of an online form while still adhering to the ethical principles of research.Results: The results showed that the religious activities of Muslim students for 7 religious activities including prayer, fasting, reading the Qur'an, Islamic interpersonal relationships (dominantly practice good morals (59.6% - 93.4%), alms (more than a half sometimes (60.6%)), learn Islam (never = 49.9%), and remembrance and prayer activities (most widely sometimes (35.8%-48.6%). For Christian religious activities with 3 domains, worship activities (spiritual discipline) (91.2% follow Sunday worship and 90.4% private prayer with main prayer, religious attitude (more than 80% always do religious attitude) and relationships with others.Conclusion: Students' religious activities need to be improved for wellness and happiness because many still have not actively implemented their religious teaching. Therefore, it is required to make an effort to increase religious activities as part of spiritual coping to leverage the mental health welfare of students.

OKUN`S LAW IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA (1996-2021): AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF OKUN`S COEFFICIENT VARIATIONS

Economic growth and unemployment are two macroeconomic quantities that have the greatest research interest among economists. The connection established between these two variables, which also describes their inverse relationship, is known in the literature as Okun's law. The subject of this research was to examine Okun's regularity between the movement of gross domestic product and unemployment in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the period from 1996 to 2021. We divided the observed period into two parts, and we observed the total sample, pre-crisis and post-crisis period, and we took 2008 and the economic crisis as the relevant year. The aim of the work was to quantify Okun's coefficient for the entire sample, pre-crisis and post-crisis period. The research results showed the existence of Okun's coefficient with variations of the coefficient over time. Namely, the value of the coefficient in the period from 1996 to 2008 is higher in absolute terms compared to the entire period, as well as the post-crisis period. The value of the coefficient for Bosnia and Herzegovina in the precrisis period was 0.79, and 0.66 is the calculated value of the coefficient for the post-crisis period. The coefficient value of 0.76 was calculated for the period from 1996 to 2021. From this we can conclude that the elasticity of the coefficient in Bosnia and Herzegovina is higher in the post-crisis period compared to the pre-crisis period.

The impact of IFRS adoption on financial ratios: evidence from listed manufacturing companies in Sri Lanka

Since the world economy is getting globalized, the pass practices of accounting could not be able to satisfy the information requirement of global stakeholders. Therefore the concept of harmonizing the accounting practices has been put forward and realized by the implementation of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) issued by International Accounting Standard Board (IASB).The main purpose of this research is to examine the impact of adopting IFRS on financial ratios in Sri Lankan listed manufacturing sector companies. The data were collected for the period of eight years from 2008/2009 to 2015/2016 by using annual report published on listed manufacturing sector in Colombo Stock Exchange (CSE). The total sample period is divided to two part as pre IFRS & post IFRS adoption periods for comparison. The ratios which are selected to the analysis are current ratio, earning per share, debt to equity ratio & return on equity ratio. The findings of the study suggest that there is no significant difference between the ratios calculated as per previous local accounting standards and as per IFRS except earnings per share ratio and current ratio. The impact was not found to be significant for debt equity ratio and return on equity ratio. The IFRS adoption is more likely to exhibit a favorable impact on financial statements. This study adds new knowledge to the existing literature of IFRS adoption since the data used are more recent than most IFRS studies around the world and the study focuses on a content of developing country while most of other studies have carried out in the context of developed countries.

Re-examining the leverage effect and gold's safe haven properties with the utilization of the implied volatility of gold: a non-parametric quantile regression approach.

Gold as a tradable financial asset has acquired the reputation of a safe haven from market turbulence. The objective of this study is to investigate empirically the relationship between gold prices and implied volatility in the futures markets of gold, re-examine the leverage hypothesis and attempt to make inferences about gold’s safe haven properties. In doing so, it utilizes the recently developed econometric tool of non-parametric quantile regressions. This is the first work to apply the flexible non-parametric quantile regressions on the exchange-traded funds (ETFs) of gold. The data used are daily returns of options of gold shares and implied volatility changes from June of 2008 to December of 2018. The empirical findings indicate that, for the total sample period as well as for almost all of the five sub-periods examined, changes in the implied volatility of gold are insensitive, and not statistically significant, to changes in the price returns of gold. The leverage hypothesis holds for a wide range in the third sub-period. Accordingly, investors in other ETFs (currency or oil) may choose to use gold as shelter during (extreme) economic downturns.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43546-021-00092-3.

Quantitative characterization of proximate sensing canopy traits in the SoyNAM population

AbstractThe average increase of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] grain yield per year is not enough to meet the estimated need by 2050. Contributing factors may include narrowing genetic diversity in cultivated soybean germplasm arising from direct selection for grain yield and insufficient knowledge of the genetic influences on physiological traits associated with grain yield. Canopy development plays a critical role in the light intercepted by soybean crops throughout the growing season. Rapid canopy closure facilitates complete light interception and optimizes growth dynamics, ultimately increasing biomass accumulation and grain yield. This study sought to use ground‐based digital imagery as a phenotyping tool for quantitative characterization of seasonal canopy coverage and light interception in the genetically diverse Soybean Nested Association Mapping (SoyNAM) population. We took weekly measurements of canopy coverage from early vegetative to mid‐reproductive growth for 5,600 recombinant inbred lines during the 2013 and 2014 seasons. An asymptotic logistic growth curve fit to the coverage data allowed us to estimate daily changes in canopy coverage in the intervals between the sampling dates, enabling calculation of canopy dynamic parameters. These parameters included average canopy coverage, cumulative intercepted photosynthetically active radiation for the total sampling period, vegetative growth period, reproductive growth period, and the number of days required to reach 30, 50, and 70% canopy coverage. Variance component estimation showed that genetic differences among families significantly influenced variation in phenotypic expression for all canopy parameters. The narrow‐sense heritabilities for all canopy parameters were high (h2 = .81–.90), suggesting opportunities for genetic gains in canopy development through selection of superior genotypes.

Statistical Characteristics of Cloud Occurrence and Vertical Structure Observed by a Ground-Based Ka-Band Cloud Radar in South Korea

The cloud measurements for two years from the vertical pointing Ka-band cloud radar at Boseong in Korea are used to analyze detailed cloud properties. The reflectivity of the cloud radar is calibrated with other vertical pointing radars compared with the two disdrometers. A simple threshold-based quality control method is applied to eliminate non-meteorological echoes (insects and noise) in conjunction with despeckling along the radial direction. Clouds are classified into five types: high (HC), middle (MC), low (LC) for non-precipitating clouds, and deep (RainDP) and shallow (RainSH) for precipitating clouds. The average cloud frequency was about 35.9% with the maximum frequency of 50% in June for the total two-year sampling period. The RainDP occurred most frequently (11.8%), followed by HC (9.3%), MC (7.4%), RainSH (4.4%), and LC (2.9%) out of the average occurrence of the total 35.9%. HC and RainDP were frequently observed in summer and autumn, while RainSH, LC, and MC were dominant in the winter due to the dominant cloud development by the air-sea interaction during the cold air outbreak. The HC showed a significant seasonal variation of the maximum height and the rapid growth in the layer above 7 km (about −15 °C) in summer and autumn. This rapid growth appears in HC, MC, LC, and RainDP and is linked with rapid increases in Doppler velocity and mass flux. Thus, this growth is originated from the dominant riming processes in addition to depositional growth and is supported by an updraft in the layer between 6 and 8 km. MC showed a single frequency peak around 6 km with rapid growth above and strong evaporation below. The Doppler velocity of MC rapidly increases above 8 km and is nearly constant below this height due to strong evaporation except in the summer. LC had a similar trend of reflectivity (rapid growth in the HC region and strong evaporation in the lower region) lacking high frequency in the MC region. Unlike LC, the RainDP had continuous growth toward the ground in the entire layer with rapid growth in the HC and MC regions. In addition, two modes (cloud and precipitation) appear on the ground in spring and fall with the vertical continuity of the high frequency in the precipitation mode. The precipitation growth was most efficient in RainSH in summer with a reflectivity gradient of about 20 dBZ km−1 and frequent updrafts larger than 1 m s−1 and was smaller in the MC and HC regions.

Fluctuations of the wall shear stress vector in a large-scale natural convection cell

We report first experimental data of the wall shear stress in turbulent air flow in a large-scale Rayleigh–Bénard experiment. Using a novel, nature-inspired measurement concept [C. H. Bruecker and V. Mikulich, PLoS One 12, e0179253 (2017)], we measured the mean and fluctuating part of the two components of the wall shear stress vector at the heated bottom plate at a Rayleigh number Ra = 1.58 × 1010 and a Prandtl number Pr = 0.7. The total sampling period of 1.5 h allowed us to capture the dynamics of the magnitude and the orientation of the vector over several orders of characteristic timescales of the large-scale circulation. We found the amplitude of short-term (turbulent) fluctuations to be following a highly skewed Weibull distribution, while the long-term fluctuations are dominated by the modulation effect of a quasi-regular angular precession of the outer flow around a constant mean, the timescale of which is coupled to the characteristic eddy turnover time of the global recirculation roll. Events of instantaneous negative streamwise wall shear occur when rapid twisting of the local flow happens. A mechanical model is used to explain the precession by tilting the spin moment of the large circulation roll and conservation of angular momentum. A slow angular drift of the mean orientation is observed in a phase of considerable weakening of mean wind magnitude.

Crude oil price and implied volatility

Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate empirically the pattern of co-movement between prices and implied volatility in the future markets for crude oil. Design/methodology/approach The tool of non-parametric quantile regression is applied to daily price returns and implied volatility changes from 2007 to 2018. Findings For the total sample period, the link between price returns and forward-looking volatility expectations is contemporaneous, negative and asymmetric, and it exhibits an (approximately) inverted U-shaped pattern suggesting that: the pricing of implied volatility is heavier for large (in absolute value terms) changes relative to small ones and it is lighter for large positive changes relative to large negative ones. The pattern of co-movement, therefore, appears to be in line with the theoretical postulates of fear, exuberance and loss aversion. The main characteristics of the relationship are present in some (but not in all) sub-periods, which are also considered in this study. Originality/value Less than a handful of works have assessed the link between implied volatility and prices for commodity ETFs. This is the first one relying on flexible non-parametric quantile regressions.

The cross-section of emerging market stock returns

Using monthly stock returns from 28 emerging market countries and a total sample period of 21 years, we investigate the predictive power of a broad set of factors. We document that the factor definitions of the Fama and French (2015) five-factor model are less robust compared to alternative factor definitions. In contrast, the anomalous returns associated with cash flow-to-price, gross profitability, composite equity issuance, and momentum are pervasive as they show up in equal- and value-weighted portfolio sorts as well as in cross-sectional regressions. In contrast to financial theory and in line with previous findings, we do not find a positive cross-sectional relationship between risk and return. Finally, return forecasts derived from the alternative factor definitions are superior in their out-of-sample predictive ability to the ones derived from the five-factor model.

The Cross-Section of Emerging Market Stock Returns

Using monthly stock returns from 28 emerging market countries and a total sample period of 21 years, we investigate the predictive power of a broad set of factors. We document that the factor definitions of the Fama and French (2015) five-factor model are less robust compared to alternative factor definitions. In contrast, the anomalous returns associated with cash flow-to-price, gross profitability, composite equity issuance, and momentum are pervasive as they show up in equal- and value-weighted portfolio sorts as well as in cross-sectional regressions. In contrast to financial theory and in line with previous findings, we do not find a positive cross-sectional relationship between risk and return. Finally, return forecasts derived from the alternative factor definitions are superior in their out-of-sample predictive ability to the ones derived from the five-factor model.

Testing capital asset pricing model (CAPM) in Ho Chi Minh City Stock Exchange (HOSE), from traditional approach to conditional approach

This study aims to test the validity of CAPM in Ho Chi Minh City Stock Exchange (HOSE). Two approaches employed in testing are (1) Fama & MacBeth’s traditional approach (1973); and (2) conditional approach developed by Pettengill et al. (1995). The research uses a time-series data set of all listed companies that are available on HOSE in each sub-period within the total sample period of 1/2007 through 6/2015. The results based on traditional approach show that CAPM does not offer a good explanation of risk-return relationship in HOSE. However, when considering market conditions (up/down) proposed by conditional approach, the findings are consistent with the CAPM prediction.

Isotope-Based Source Apportionment of EC Aerosol Particles during Winter High-Pollution Events at the Zeppelin Observatory, Svalbard.

Black carbon (BC) aerosol particles contribute to climate warming of the Arctic, yet both the sources and the source-related effects are currently poorly constrained. Bottom-up emission inventory (EI) approaches are challenged for BC in general and the Arctic in particular. For example, estimates from three different EI models on the fractional contribution to BC from biomass burning (north of 60° N) vary between 11% and 68%, each acknowledging large uncertainties. Here we present the first dual-carbon isotope-based (Δ(14)C and δ(13)C) source apportionment of elemental carbon (EC), the mass-based correspondent to optically defined BC, in the Arctic atmosphere. It targeted 14 high-loading and high-pollution events during January through March of 2009 at the Zeppelin Observatory (79° N; Svalbard, Norway), with these representing one-third of the total sampling period that was yet responsible for three-quarters of the total EC loading. The top-down source-diagnostic (14)C fingerprint constrained that 52 ± 15% (n = 12) of the EC stemmed from biomass burning. Including also two samples with 95% and 98% biomass contribution yield 57 ± 21% of EC from biomass burning. Significant variability in the stable carbon isotope signature indicated temporally shifting emissions between different fossil sources, likely including liquid fossil and gas flaring. Improved source constraints of Arctic BC both aids better understanding of effects and guides policy actions to mitigate emissions.

A comparative analysis of the predictive power of implied volatility indices and GARCH forecasted volatility

This paper examines the accuracy of implied volatility and GARCH forecasted volatility to predict the behavior of realized volatility. The methodology adopted addresses the information content, the bias, the efficiency and the efficiency forecast of the predictor.In previous studies on this topic, efficiency has been analyzed both in terms of the efficiency of the predictor itself and its forecasting efficiency. In this context, implied volatility is the predictor and the efficiency is assessed through the validation of some of the OLS (Ordinary Least Squares) assumptions. However, those studies paid little attention to the heteroskedasticity of the residuals, even though this is an important source of inefficiency. Our study accounts for conditional heteroskedasticity by using a GARCH model to predict the time-dependent variance of the residuals. A GARCH forecasted volatility index was constructed based on these estimates.In addition, we employ out-of-sample forecasting accuracy tests in order to identify the best forecasting model. The results clearly show that GARCH forecasted volatility outperforms implied volatility to produce out-of-sample forecasts based on a subsample of the total sampling period for the four stock markets analyzed.

Great Moderation in the Japanese economy

This paper investigates the contribution of technology and nontechnology shocks to the changing volatility of output and labor growth in the postwar Japanese economy. A time-varying vector autoregression (VAR) with drifting coefficients and stochastic volatilities is modeled and long-run restriction is used to identify technology shocks in line with Galí (1999) and Galí and Gambetti (2009). We find that technology shocks are responsible for significant changes in the output volatility throughout the total sample period while the volatility of labor input is largely attributed to nontechnology shocks. The driving force behind these results is the negative correlation between labor input and productivity, which holds significantly and persistently over the postwar period.

다변량 GARCH 모형을 이용한 한국, 러시아, 브라질 주식시장에서의 충격전이효과 분석

This study analyzes inter-regional shock spillover effects among three countries Korea in Asia, Russia in Europe, and Brazil in Latin America using the multivariate GARCH-BEKK(generalized autoregressive conditional hetreroscedasticity-Baba, Engle, Kraft, and Kroner) model to find out the long-term portfolio diversification effects as well as volatility spillover effects in association of time-varying volatility correlations. The whole sample period of this analysis consisits of 4,072 days from January, 1997 to August, 2012 and we divide this total period into four sub-samples composed of three major crisis times and one normal period to take into detailed consideration on further differentiated effects of structural break times and normal times. The three major financial crisis times are composed of 649 days of Asia-Russian FX Crisis Times(January 1997∼June 1999), 522 days of Latin-American Currency Crisis Times(January 2002∼December 2004), and 1,204 days of Global Financial Crisis Times including recent European Sovereign Debt Crisis Times(January 2008∼August 2012). The one normal subsample period comprise 1,043 days from January 2004 to December 2007. Additionally, we use separate multivariate asymmetric GARCH model by GJR(Glosten, Jaganathan, and Runkle) to check further asymmetric volatility transmission effects between up shock and down shock. Major findings from the estimation results over the five entire sample groups composed of one total sample and four sub-samples for the impacts among the three stock market returns and their volatilities by using both symmetric and asymmetric GARCH-BEKK models are as follows. First, VIX, the US stock market volatility index, VIX as a global risk factor in the mean equation model over the whole sample period shows differentiated impacts by individual stock markets contrary to the prior expectation. Namely, VIX is shown to have significant negative impacts on both Korean and Russian stock market return conforming to the expectation from the volatility feedback hypothesis, but have a significant positive impact on Brazilian stock market return. On the while, changes in FX in the basis of dollar value as a country-specific risk factor clearly show significant negative effects on all the three sample stock market returns indicating that currency depreciation as a result of weakened fundamentals affects negatively stock market performance. Second, no clear shock spillover effects from the whole sample period are shown in the estimation of symmetric model of variance equations representing long-term portfolio diversification effects among these three countries. In the asymmetric model estimation over the same sample, shock from Russia is shown to affect positively the other two stock markets. Third, contrary to the total sample period estimation results, those from the 3 crisis times sub-sample periods, Asia-Russia FX Crisis, Latin American Currency Crisis, and Global Financial Crisis including European Sovereign Debt Crisis represent much differentiated phenomena. During the Asia-Russia Crisis period, in spite of the significant positive impact of shock spillover from Russia to Brazil and from Brazil to Korea in the symmetric model, no obvious downward shock spillovers are shown in the asymmetric model, contrary to the prior expectation that Asia-Russian Crisis can be surely to have a positive spillover effect to the global market.

Rapid identification of single constant contaminant source by considering characteristics of real sensors

For the release of hazardous contaminant indoors, source identification is critical for developing effective response measures. A method which can quickly and accurately identify the position, emission rate, and release time of a single constant contaminant source by using real sensors was presented. The method was numerically demonstrated and validated by a case study of contaminant release in a three-dimensional office. The effects of the measurement errors and total sampling period of sensor on the performance of source identification were thoroughly studied. The results indicate that the adverse effects of the measurement errors can be mitigated by extending the total sampling period. For reaching a desirable accuracy of source identification, the total sampling period should exceed a certain threshold, which can be determined by repeatedly running the identification method until the results tend to be stable. The method presented can contribute to develop an onsite source identification system for protecting occupants from indoor releases.

Distribution and reproductive pattern of deep-water crangonid shrimps in the East Sea of Korea

In this study, we investigated the distribution patterns of two crangonid shrimps in the East Sea of Korea. The distributions of the shrimps differed significantly with depth. Neocrangon communis (Rathbun, 1899) was found at depths of 300-900 m throughout the survey area, with the greatest number of individuals at 300 m depth in the total sampling period. Argis toyamaensis (Yokoya, 1933) occurred over the entire depth range (300-900 m), with the greatest numbers of individuals at 800 m depth in the total sampling period. On average, the large females and ovigerous females of N. communis and A. toyamaensis were mainly distributed in shallow waters (300-400 m depth). The ovigerous females of the shallow-dwelling species N. communis mainly occurred in shallow waters. The deep-dwelling species, A. toyamaensis, differed slightly from N. communis in terms of the distribution of its ovigerous females. The ovigerous females of A. toyamaensis were widely distributed at all depths, and the gonadosomatic index did not differ significantly with depth. However, the deep-dwelling species, A. toyamaensis, had larger eggs than had N. communis. We suggest that life-history strategies are determined by many environmental factors, including depth, in the deep-water environment. The optimal distribution depths of these two species were closely related to their reproductive strategies.

Investigation into survey techniques of large mammals: surveyor competence and camera-trapping vs. transect-sampling

Rigorous and cost-effective methods are essential to efficiently assess wildlife populations and obtain accurate data to inform conservation and management decisions. In the UK, available data on terrestrial mammal species are distinctly lacking, many populations are in decline and survey methods are technically demanding and labour-intensive. There is, therefore, much need to investigate alternative methodologies to ensure that resource use is efficient and data are reliable. Camera-trapping presents a relatively new approach for surveying mammals, though in the UK, the extent to which camera traps have been used has not been quantified and their performance has not yet been compared relative to existing methods. This study uses biological parameters and economic and logistic costs to assess the efficiency and reliability of camera-trapping and transect-sampling during winter field trials. Tracks and sign surveys and sightings surveys were conducted simultaneously and where appropriate, investigated independently. In addition, a nationally-distributed questionnaire was used to investigate surveyor competence and identify temporal trends in method use in the UK. Field trials concluded that camera-trapping was the most labour-efficient method for producing a species inventory, and frequently recorded more species per sampling site than did transect-sampling. However, when the total sampling period was limited, species were encountered at a faster rate by the detection of tracks and signs than by the alternative methods investigated. The single density estimate derived from camera trap data was higher than that from transect-sampling, and no differences were observed within the three alpha diversity index estimates derived by each survey method. The questionnaire suggests that the reliability of species presence/absence data derived from tracks and signs surveys is probably compromised by surveyor confidence of species identification. A multi-evidence approach is, therefore, recommended for less-competent surveyors. Despite greater initial economic costs, it is advocated that camera-trapping may be an efficient, rigorous and cost-effective method for large-scale long-term monitoring programmes. Furthermore, data suggest that camera trap use will become increasingly frequent in the UK. More research is required to investigate the relationships between method efficiency and season, species density and habitat, and to assess the accuracy of species density estimates.