Total Phthalate Research Articles

Cumulative exposure and dietary risk assessment of phthalates in bottled water and bovine milk samples: A preliminary case study in Tamil Nadu, India

ABSTRACTExposure to phthalates may cause adverse health effects in wildlife and humans. Study on phthalates exposure and risk is limited in the Indian context. Therefore, this preliminary investigation was performed to ascertain the phthalates exposure through bottled water and milk among the Indian sub-population. Phthalates were extracted from water and milk by solid-phase and ultrasonication methods, respectively, and analysis was performed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Total phthalates in bottled water and milk were in the range of 39–7820 ng/L and 56–686 ng/g, respectively, with the highest contribution from diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP). A substantial increase in phthalates concentration in bottled water was observed with increased shelf life. Total mean phthalates in packed milk (245 ng/g) and raw milk (134 ng/g) shows potential enrichment during “farm to table” process. Among phthalates, the lowest risk was expected from diethyl phthalate, whereas the highest risk was observed for DEHP with cumulative dietary exposure of 0.23 μg/kg bw/day (median). The human health risk based on tolerable daily intake and reference dose was found safe. This is the first study reporting phthalates migration in packed commodities from a developing country, India, which further warrants extensive phthalates exposure assessment to understand its effect on public health.

Association between Exposure to Estrogenic Endocrine Disruptors - Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Phthalates, and Bisphenol A and Gynecologic Cancers- Cervical, Ovarian, Uterine Cancers

Introduction: Estrogen is a driver in the growth and progression of gynecologic cancers (cervical, ovarian, and uterine). A number of estrogenically active chemicals are suspected to contribute in the development of gynecologic lesions, including an increased risk of estrogen-dependent cancer in women. Humans are exposed to estrogenic endocrine disruptors (EEDs), such as- polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA). Therefore, we examined the cross-sectional relationship between exposure to PCBs, phthalates, and BPA and gynecologic cancers (cervical, ovarian, and uterine). Methods: We analyzed data from female participants (20 years of age and older) who provided blood and urine samples for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) between 1999 and 2010. Exposure was examined based on lipid adjusted serum levels of 6 individual PCB congeners (74, 99, 118, 138, 153, and 180), the sum of dioxin-like PCBs (074 and 118), the sum of non-dioxin-like PCBs (099+138+153+187), 8 urinary phthalate metabolites (MNP, MEP, MEHP, MBzP, MCPP, MEHHP, MEOHP, and MIB), the sum of DEHP metabolites (MHP+MHH+MOH), the sum of total phthalates, and urinary BPA in conjunction with data obtained from the medical and reproductive health questionnaires. We calculated geometric means to compare EEDs concentrations in women who self-reported a cervical, ovarian, or uterine cancer diagnosis vs. women who self-reported never being diagnosed with cancer. We used logistic regression models to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the association between exposure to EEDs and r gynecologic cancers. We also evaluated age, race/ethnicity, body mass index (BMI; kg/m2), and age at menarche as potential confounding variables in our final models. Results: Separate analyses showed weighted geometric mean (GM) levels of individual PCB congeners to be significantly higher among women with ovarian cancer, and uterine cancer when compared to the rest of the study population. Mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP) was found to be significantly higher and BPA was higher among women with ovarian cancer compared to women never diagnosed with any gynecologic cancer. After adjusting for age, race, BMI, and age at menarche, we found that PCB 138 was significantly associated with cervical cancer, and uterine cancer [odds ratios of 3.05, 95% CI: 1.21-7.69; and 5.83, 95% CI: 1.63-20.9], respectively. PCB 74 and 118 however, were significantly associated with ovarian cancer with an odds ratios of 6.47, 95% CI: 1.23-3.41 (for PCB 74) and 6.68, 95% CI: 1.39-32.3 (for PCB 118). We also found the sum of non-dioxin-like PCBs to be significantly associated with uterine cancer (OR of 1.12, 95% CI: 1.03-1.23) and the sum of dioxin-like PCBs to be significantly associated with ovarian cancer (OR of 2.02, 95% CI: 1.06-3.85). We did not find significant associations between urinary phthalates and BPA and gynecologic cancers. Conclusions: Our findings point to a possible association between environmental exposure to PCBs and an increased risk of cervix, ovarian and uterine cancer. However, these findings should be interpreted cautiously because of self-reported cross sectional data and a limited sample size of gynecologic cancers.

Determination of free and total phthalates in commercial whole milk products in different packaging materials by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

We developed a method for extraction and determination of free and total phthalate esters in commercial whole milk products. The free phthalates in milk samples were extracted with ethyl acetate after general pretreatment procedures including protein precipitation, centrifugation, and filtration. The bound phthalates in samples were first desorbed with the aid of ultrasound irradiation before extraction of total phthalates. The separation and determination of phthalates in extracts was performed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometric detection. The detection limits were in the range of 0.09 to 0.36ng/g and the average recovery between 79.1 and 110.3%. The developed methods were applied to extract and determine phthalates in commercial whole milk products with different packaging materials, including plastic, glass, and metal. All samples contained several phthalates, including diethyl, diisobutyl, and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalates at concentrations between 2.60 and 156.4ng/g. The identified phthalates occurred in both free and bound forms. The amounts of phthalates in milk samples packaged in glass and metal containers were much lower than those in plastic containers. Plastic packaging materials are a possible source of phthalate contamination in commercial whole milk products, and a considerable portion of bleached phthalates from packaging can be adsorbed on proteins and other solid components of milk.

Comparison, association, and risk assessment of phthalates in floor dust at different indoor environments in Delaware, USA

This study aimed to compare and assess phthalate contamination in various indoor environments. In this study, 44 floor dust samples from different indoor environments in Delaware, USA were collected and analyzed for 14 phthalates using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Phthalates were detected in all dust samples with the total concentration ranging from 84 to 7117 mg kg−1. DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), BzBP (benzylbutyl phthalate), DBP (dibutyl phthalate), and DiBP (di-isobutyl phthalate) were both the most frequently and abundantly detected phthalates. The average concentration of total phthalates in dust from offices, student dorms, gyms, stores, and daycare centers was found to be significantly or insignificantly (P = 0.05) higher than that in dust from houses and apartments. Plastic flooring materials and the application of floor care chemical products were positively associated with total phthalate concentration in floor dust. Toxicological risk assessment indicated that an investigated daycare center in this study was the only indoor environment that may cause the intake amount of DEHP of infants, toddlers, and children via dust ingestion to exceed the reference dose established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Regular monitoring on phthalate contamination in sensitive indoor environments is recommended.

Phthalate esters in main source water and drinking water of Zhejiang Province (China): Distribution and health risks

To evaluate the distributions and health risks of phthalate esters in the main source water and corresponding drinking water of Zhejiang Province, the concentrations of 16 phthalate esters in water samples from 19 sites were measured from samples taken in the dry season and wet season. The concentration of the total phthalate ester congeners in source water ranged from 1.07 μg/L to 7.12 μg/L in the wet season, from 0.01 μg/L to 1.58 μg/L in the dry season, from 1.18 μg/L to 15.28 μg/L from drinking water in the wet season, and from 0.16 μg/L to 1.86 μg/L from drinking water in the dry season. Of the 16 phthalate esters, dimethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, di-(2-ethyl-hexyl) phthalate, di-iso-butyl phthalate, bis-2-n-butoxyethyl phthalate, and dicyclohexyl phthalate were present in the samples analyzed, dominated by di-iso-butyl phthalate and di-(2-ethyl-hexyl) phthalate. The concentrations of phthalate esters in the wet season were all relatively higher than those in the dry season, and the drinking water had higher concentrations of phthalate esters than source water. The phthalate ester congeners studied pose little health risk to nearby citizens. Environ Toxicol Chem 2015;34:2205-2212. © 2015 SETAC.

The relationship between phthalates and obesity: serum and urine concentrations of phthalates.

A limited number of human and animal studies suggest that a relationship exists between phthalates and obesity, although this is not supported by all research. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and the levels of phthalates in human blood and urine samples. Sixty-four overweight or 132 obese individuals (total=196) of different ages (min-max, 17-62; mean ± SD, 42.07±11.3) and genders (F:M 97:99) enrolled in the study. BMI and waist circumference were measured to diagnose obesity. Venous blood samples were taken after overnight fasting. To compare the urine phthalates among participants, single spot urine (at least 10 mL) was collected from the subject after blood samples were taken. Urine and blood phthalate concentrations were measured using gas chromatography. Total blood/urinary phthalate levels significantly increased in proportion to the degree of obesity. There was a high correlation between the level of total phthalates in serum and BMI (ρ=0.697, P<0.001), and between total urinary phthalate levels and BMI (ρ=0.707, P<0.001). This is the first study to have shown that both blood and urinary phthalates increased in proportion to BMI. The results show a strong association between obesity and phthalates.

The association of socio-demographic status, lifestyle factors and dietary patterns with total urinary phthalates in Australian men.

ObjectiveTo investigate the associations between socio-demographic status, lifestyle factors, dietary patterns and urinary total phthalate concentration in a cohort of South Australian men.MethodWe randomly selected 1527 males aged 39 to 84 from wave two of the Men Androgen Inflammation Lifestyle Environment and Stress (MAILES) study. Total phthalate concentration was examined in fasting morning urine samples. Socio-demographic and lifestyle factors were assessed by questionnaire. Food intake was assessed by food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Dietary patterns were constructed using factor analysis.ResultsTotal phthalates were detected in 99.6% of the urine samples. The overall geometric mean (95% CI) of total phthalate concentration was 112.4 (107.5–117.5) ng/mL. The least square geometric means (LSGMs) of total phthalate concentration were significantly higher among people who were obese (127.8 ng/mL), consuming less than two serves fruit per day (125.7 ng/mL) and drinking more than one can (375mL) of carbonated soft drink per day (131.9 ng/mL). Two dietary patterns were identified: a prudent dietary pattern and a western dietary pattern. Both the western dietary pattern (p = 0.002) and multiple lifestyle risk factors including smoking, obesity, insufficient physical activity and the highest quartile of the western dietary pattern (p<0.001), were positively associated with total phthalate levels. There was no significant relationship between total phthalate concentration and socio-demographic status.ConclusionPhthalate exposure is ubiquitous and positively associated with lifestyle risk factors in urban dwelling Australian men.

Elevated phthalates' exposure in children with constitutional delay of growth and puberty

BackgroundPhthalates have been proven to be antiandrogenic, which may interfere with the timing of puberty. Children with Constitutional Delay of Growth and Puberty (CDGP) typically display short stature and pubertal delay. This study investigated whether phthalate's exposure was associated with CDGP, and evaluated the potential mediator role of testosterone. MethodsIn this case-control study, a total of 167 boys, including 57 boys with CDGP (cases) and 110 controls were enrolled. We measured six major phthalate metabolites in urine samples using high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). The serum testosterone level was determined by radioimmunoassay. ResultsChildren in the CDGP group were determined to have significantly elevated urinary phthalates concentration compared with control subjects (total phthalates median: case, 107.00 ng/ml; control, 62.22 ng/ml, p = 0.001). After adjustment for BMI and other confounding factors: mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP), monoethyl phthalate (MEP) and total phthalate concentrations were significantly negatively associated with serum testosterone level (MBP: β = −45.7, p = 0.017; MEP: β = −31.6, p = 0.022; total phthalates: β = −24.6, p = 0.011); MBP, MEP, mono (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) and total phthalates were significantly associated with CDGP (odds ratio: MBP: 8.30, p = 0.002; MEP: 5.43, p = 0.002; MEHP: 3.83, p = 0.017; total phthalates: 9.09, p = 0.001). Serum testosterone level acted as a mediator of the association between phthalates' exposure and CDGP (p = 0.002) (proportion mediated: 34.4%). ConclusionsIn this case–control study, elevated phthalates' level was detected in children with CDGP in Shanghai, China and phthalate level was associated with CDGP, which appeared to be mediated by circulating testosterone level.

Phthalate metabolites in urine samples from Beijing children and correlations with phthalate levels in their handwipes.

Little attention has been paid to dermal absorption of phthalates even though modeling suggests that this pathway may contribute meaningfully to total uptake. We have concurrently collected handwipe and urine samples from 39 Beijing children (5-9 years) for the purpose of measuring levels of five phthalates in handwipes, corresponding concentrations of eight of their metabolites in urine, and to subsequently assess the contribution of dermal absorption to total uptake. In summer sampling, DEHP was the most abundant phthalate in handwipes (median: 1130 μg/m(2) ), while MnBP was the most abundant metabolite in urine (median: 232 ng/ml). We found significant associations between the parent phthalate in handwipes and its monoester metabolite in urine for DiBP (r = 0.41, P = 0.01), DnBP (r = 0.50, P = 0.002), BBzP (r = 0.48, P = 0.003), and DEHP (r = 0.36, P = 0.03). Assuming that no dermal uptake occurred under clothing-covered skin, we estimate that dermal absorption of DiBP, DnBP, BBzP, and DEHP contributed 6.9%, 4.6%, 6.9%, and 3.3%, respectively, to total uptake. Assuming that somewhat attenuated dermal uptake occurred under clothing-covered skin, these estimates increase to 19%, 14%, 17%, and 10%. The results indicate that absorption from skin surfaces makes a meaningful contribution to total phthalate uptake for children and should be considered in future risk assessments. This study indicates that children’s hands acquire substantial amounts of various phthalates. The levels measured in handwipes, although higher, are somewhat representative of levels on other body locations. Via dermal absorption, as well as hand-to-mouth activity, phthalates on hands and other body locations contribute to the overall body burden of these compounds. Dermal absorption from air and contact transfer from surfaces is expected to occur for many SVOCs commonly found indoors (e.g. bisphenols, synthetic musks, organophosphates). However, the dermal pathway has often been neglected in exposure assessments of indoor pollutants. Knowledge regarding phthalates and other SVOCs in handwipes can facilitate our understanding of risks and aid in the mitigation of adverse health effects resulting from indoor exposures. To make progress toward these goals, further studies are necessary, including investigations of phthalate level variability in skinwipes collected at different locations on the body and the impact of clothing on dermal absorption from air.

Airborne particulate endocrine disrupting compounds in China: Compositions, size distributions and seasonal variations of phthalate esters and bisphenol A

Phthalate esters and bisphenol A (BPA) are endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) and ubiquitously occur in the environment. In the past decade we have characterized atmospheric organic aerosols from various environments (e.g., urban, rural, mountain and marine) of East Asia on a molecular level, but not investigated EDCs in the samples. In the current study we re-analyzed our database for concentrations, compositions and size distributions of phthalates and BPA and compared with those in the literature to improve the understanding on air pollution status in China. Our results showed that airborne particulate phthalates and BPA are 63–1162ngm−3 and 1.0–20ngm−3 in the urban regions in China, respectively, being one to two orders of magnitude higher than those in the developed countries. Among the detected phthalates in Chinese urban areas, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (BEHP) is the predominant congener, contributing to 23–79% (ave. 53±15%) of the total phthalates. Concentrations of phthalates and bisphenol A in Shanghai and Xi'an (two mega-cities in China) in 2009 were 3–84% lower than those in 2003, probably indicating a positive effect of the government's air pollution control in the recent years. Phthalates are higher in summer than in winter, because they are not chemically bonded to the polymeric matrix and more easily evaporate into the air under higher temperature conditions. Based on the size distribution observation, we found that diisobutyl and dibutyl phthalates mainly exist in coarse particles because of high volatilities, in contrast to BEHP and BPA, which are dominant in fine particles due to less volatility. Our results also indicate that BPA is mostly derived from the open burning of solid waste while phthalates are derived from both direct evaporation from the matrix and solid waste combustion.

Phthalate diesters in Airborne PM2.5 and PM10 in a suburban area of Shanghai: Seasonal distribution and risk assessment

Concentrations of nine phthalate diesters in 24-h airborne PM2.5 and PM10 were determined from October 2011 to August 2012 in a suburban area in Shanghai, China. Dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), di-iso-butyl phthalate (DIBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BzBP), and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) were frequently detected in airborne particulate matter at sum concentrations of these six compounds ranging from 13.3 to 186ng/m3, with an average value of 59.8ng/m3 in PM2.5, and from 10.1 to 445ng/m3, with an average value of 132ng/m3 in PM10. DEHP, DBP, and DIBP were the major phthalate diesters found in PM samples. DEHP was found predominantly in coarse (size fraction of between PM2.5 and PM10) particles, whereas DMP, DEP, DBP, DIBP, and BzBP were found predominantly in fine (PM2.5) particles. The concentrations of phthalates in PM during warm months (207ng/m3 for PM10 and 71.9ng/m3 for PM2.5, on average) were significantly higher than those during cold months (76.9ng/m3 for PM10 and 50.4ng/m3 for PM2.5). Significant positive correlations were found between concentrations of total phthalates, DEHP, and BzBP, with the total mass and organic carbon content of PM. Based on the concentrations of DEHP, incremental lifetime cancer risks (ILCR) from inhalation exposure were estimated using a Monte Carlo simulation. Although the 95% probabilities for the ILCR values for the general population were below the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) threshold of 10−6, our result is an underestimate of the actual health risk because we only considered the outdoor inhalation exposure to DEHP in this study.

Phthalate esters in water and sediments of the Kaveri River, India: environmental levels and ecotoxicological evaluations.

Phthalate esters are well known for their environmental contamination and toxicological effects as "endocrine disruptors." In this study, environmental levels of phthalate esters and ecotoxicological risk assessments were performed in one of the major rivers in India, the Kaveri. Water and sediment samples were collected during 2010-2012 representing the major stretch of the river and extracted by solid-phase and ultrasonic methods, respectively, and analyzed for six major phthalates by using a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. The analytical recovery for phthalates in water and sediment ranged from 79 to 121%. Results indicated that diethyl phthalate (DEP) and dimethyl phthalate were found in every sample, whereas butylbenzyl phthalate and diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) were detected in 92% of the water samples. Likewise, in sediment samples, DEP was found most often (94%). The total phthalates in water samples ranged from 313 to 1,640 ng/l, whereas in sediments it was 2 to 1,438 ng/g dw (dry weight) with DEHP having the highest concentration. Human health risk assessment based on drinking water consumption showed no potential risk for phthalates and also DEHP levels were safe with respect to USEPA guideline (6,000 ng/l). Further, DEHP and di-n-octyl phthalate levels in water were expected to pose little threat to sensitive organisms in the riverine ecosystem as per ECOSAR chronic values. In case of sediment, the DEHP concentration was well above the USEPA sediment guideline value. To our knowledge, this is the first study to describe the levels and ecotoxicological risks of phthalates in Kaveri River, India.

Association of Urinary Concentrations of Bisphenol A and Phthalate Metabolites with Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Prospective Investigation in the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS) and NHSII Cohorts

Background: Prospective evidence regarding associations for exposures to bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates with type 2 diabetes (T2D) is lacking.Objective: We prospectively examined urinary concentrations of BPA and phthalate metabolites with T2D risk.Methods: We measured BPA and eight major phthalate metabolites among 971 incident T2D case–control pairs from the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS) (mean age, 65.6 years) and NHSII (mean age, 45.6 years).Results: In the NHSII, BPA levels were not associated with incident T2D in multivariate-adjusted analysis until body mass index was adjusted: odds ratio (OR) comparing extreme BPA quartiles increased from 1.40 (95% CI: 0.91, 2.15) to 2.08 (95% CI: 1.17, 3.69; ptrend = 0.02) with such an adjustment. In contrast, BPA concentrations were not associated with T2D in the NHS (OR = 0.81; 95% CI: 0.48, 1.38; ptrend = 0.45). Likewise, urinary concentrations of total phthalate metabolites were associated with T2D in the NHSII (OR comparing extreme quartiles = 2.14; 95% CI: 1.19, 3.85; ptrend = 0.02), but not in the NHS (OR = 0.87; 95% CI: 0.49, 1.53; ptrend = 0.29). Summed metabolites of butyl phthalates or di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalates were significantly associated with T2D only in the NHSII; ORs comparing extreme quartiles were 3.16 (95% CI: 1.68, 5.95; ptrend = 0.0002) and 1.91 (95% CI: 1.04, 3.49; ptrend = 0.20), respectively.Conclusions: These results suggest that BPA and phthalate exposures may be associated with the risk of T2D among middle-aged, but not older, women. The divergent findings between the two cohorts might be explained by menopausal status or simply by chance. Clearly, these results need to be interpreted with caution and should be replicated in future studies, ideally with multiple urine samples collected prospectively to improve the measurement of these exposures with short half-lives.Citation: Sun Q, Cornelis MC, Townsend MK, Tobias DK, Eliassen AH, Franke AA, Hauser R, Hu FB. 2014. Association of urinary concentrations of bisphenol A and phthalate metabolites with risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective investigation in the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS) and NHSII Cohorts. Environ Health Perspect 122:616–623; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1307201

Indoor phthalate concentration and exposure in residential and office buildings in Xi'an, China

Indoor phthalate levels were investigated in 28 buildings, including 14 office and 14 residential buildings in Xi'an, China. Phthalate esters in the gas-, particle-, and dust- phase were measured separately. Four phthalates including dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) were detected. The detection frequency of DnBP and DEHP was more than 90%. The concentrations of total phthalate esters ranged from 0.20 to 8.29 μg m−3 for the gas- phase, from 0.09 to 14.77 μg m−3 for the particle- phase and from 123 to 9504 μg g−1 for the dust- phase. The individual phthalate with the highest concentrations of 6.17 μg m−3, 7.97 μg m−3 and 7228 μg g−1 respectively for gas-, particle- and dust- phase in all investigated rooms is all DiBP. The median concentration of the gas- and particle-phase DiBP (0.52 and 0.72 μg m−3) and dust-phase DEHP (582 μg g−1) were the highest. It was also found that the average concentrations of individual phthalates in residential buildings were often higher than in office buildings, and correlation analysis indicated that DiBP, DnBP and DEHP might come from the same sources. Based on the gas- and particle-phase concentrations measured, the particle-air partition coefficients of phthalates were estimated, and their logarithm values were found to be linearly correlated with the logarithm values of their octanol-air partition coefficients. Finally, the total daily exposure to indoor phthalates in air and dust was calculated, and ranged from 2.6 μg kg−1 day−1 (for adults) to 7.4 μg kg−1 day−1 (for toddlers).

Vorkommen von Weichmachern (Phthalaten) in Gemeinschaftseinrichtungen unter besonderer Bedeutung der Ergebnisse von LUPE 3

Children are a very susceptible subgroup of the general population and therefore health authorities have a special interest to prevent them from health hazards. In a study of 3 German Bundesländer the indoor air and dust samples of altogether 63 German daycare centres were analysed for the presence of phthalate diesters in 2011/12 (LUPE 3 study). Inhalable dust and gas phases were collected with a glass fibre filter and polyurethane foam over approximately 6 h while children were attending these facilities. Settled dust was collected by vacuuming the floor of the room using an ALK dust sampler. Indoor air and dust were analysed using a GC/MS system. Median values in the dust samples were 888 mg/kg for di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), 302 mg/kg for diisononyl phthalate (DiNP), 34 mg/kg for diisodecyl phthalate (DiDP), 21 mg/kg for di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and 20 mg/kg for diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP). For DEHP and DiNP maximum values of 10,086 mg/kg and 7,091 mg/kg were observed, respectively. DEHP and DiNP were responsible for 70% and 24% of the total phthalate concentration in the dust. In indoor air phthalates are found mainly in the particulate phase of the filters. Only the more volatile phthalates dimethyl phthalate and diethyl phthalate were found also in the gas phase. The median values in the indoor air were 470 ng/m³ for DiBP, 230 ng/m³ for DnBP, 190 ng/m³ for DEHP, and 100 ng/m³ for DiNP. DnBP and DiBP were together responsible for 55% of the total phthalate concentration in the indoor air. Overall, our study showed that the concentrations of phthalates in indoor air of daycare centers are slightly higher and in dust samples lower compared with schools.

Phthalates in German daycare centers: Occurrence in air and dust and the excretion of their metabolites by children (LUPE 3)

Phthalates have been used for decades in large quantities, leading to the ubiquitous exposure of the population.In an investigation of 63 German daycare centers, indoor air and dust samples were analyzed for the presence of 10 phthalate diesters. Moreover, 10 primary and secondary phthalate metabolites were quantified in urine samples from 663 children attending these facilities. In addition, the urine specimens of 150 children were collected after the weekend and before they went to daycare centers.Di-isobutyl phthalate (DiBP), dibutyl phthalate (DnBP), and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) were found in the indoor air, with median values of 468, 227, and 194ng/m3, respectively. In the dust, median values of 888mg/kg for DEHP and 302mg/kg for di-isononyl phthalate (DiNP) were observed. DnBP and DiBP were together responsible for 55% of the total phthalate concentration in the indoor air, whereas DEHP and DiNP were responsible for 70% and 24% of the total phthalate concentration in the dust.Median concentrations in the urine specimens were 44.7μg/l for the DiBP monoester, 32.4μg/l for the DnBP monoester, and 16.5μg/l and 17.9μg/l for the two secondary DEHP metabolites. For some phthalates, we observed significant correlations between their concentrations in the indoor air and dust and their corresponding metabolites in the urine specimens using bivariate analyses. In multivariate analyses, the concentrations in dust were not associated with urinary metabolite excretion after controlling for the concentrations in the indoor air.The total daily “high” intake levels based on the 95th percentiles calculated from the biomonitoring data were 14.1μg/kg b.w. for DiNP and 11.9μg/kg b.w. for DEHP. Compared with tolerable daily intake (TDI) values, our “high” intake was 62% of the TDI value for DiBP, 49% for DnBP, 24% for DEHP, and 9% for DiNP. For DiBP, the total daily intake exceeded the TDI value for 2.4% of the individuals. Using a cumulative risk-assessment approach for the sum of DEHP, DnBP, and DiBP, 20% of the children had concentrations exceeding the hazard index of one. Therefore, a further reduction of the phthalate exposure of children is needed.

The distribution of phthalate esters in indoor dust of Palermo (Italy)

In this work, phthalic acid esters (PAEs): dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate, benzyl butyl phthalate, bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, and di-n-octyl phthalate in indoor dust (used as passive sampler) were investigated. The settled dust samples were collected from thirteen indoor environments from Palermo city. A fast and simple method using Soxhlet and GC–MS analysis has been optimized to identify and quantify the phthalates. Total phthalates concentrations in indoor dusts ranged from 269 to 4,831 mg/kg d.w. (d.w. = dry weight). The data show a linear correlation between total PAEs concentration and a single compound content, with the exclusion of the two most volatile components (DMP and DEP) that are present in appreciable amounts only in two samples. These results suggest that most of the PAEs identified in the samples of settled dust originate from the same type of material. This evidence indicates that, in a specific indoor environment, generally is not present only one compound but a mixture having over time comparable percentages of PAEs. Consequently, for routine analyses of a specific indoor environment, only a smaller number of compounds could be determined to value the contamination of that environment. We also note differences in phthalate concentrations between buildings from different construction periods; the total concentration of PAEs was higher in ancient homes compared to those constructed later. This is due to a trend to reduce or remove certain hazardous compounds from building materials and consumer goods. A linear correlation between total PAEs concentration and age of the building was observed (R = 0.71).

Determination of Phthalates in Jordanian Bottled Water using GC–MS and HPLC–UV: Environmental Study

A simple, accurate and reliable method was presented and validated for the simultaneous monitoring of six phthalates at trace level concentrations in seven different brands of commercial bottled mineral water from Jordan. Liquid-liquid extraction with a mixture of methylene chloride-petroleum ether (20:80, v/v) was used for isolation and enrichment of the phthalates and sample cleanup. This was followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for identification and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet detection for quantification. The linear range of the GC-MS calibration curve was 0.3-1.2 µg/L with a mean correlation coefficient (R(2)) of 0.9920 ± 0.0063, the detection limit was < 0.1 µg/L and the percentage recovery was >90%. For HPLC, the linear range was 0.5-10 mg/L with R(2) = 0.9985 ± 0.0012 and an average detection limit of 0.20 ± 0.15 µg/L. The results indicated that the Jordanian bottled water was contaminated with dibutyl-, di-2-ethylhexyl- and di-n-octyl-phthalate, with total phthalate concentrations between 8.1 and 19.8 µg/L. Increasing the storage temperature of the bottled water increased the content of leached phthalates in the water (total concentration of 23-29.2 µg/L).

Prenatal exposure to phthalates is associated with decreased anogenital distance and penile size in male newborns

Reproductive effects from phthalate exposure have been documented mostly in animal studies. This study explored the association between prenatal exposure to phthalate metabolites, anogenital distance and penile measurements in male newborns in Toluca, State of Mexico. A total of 174 pregnant women provided urine samples for phthalate analysis during their last prenatal visit, and the 73 who gave birth to male infants were included in the study. The 73 male newborns were weighed and measured using standardized methods after delivery. After adjusting for creatinine and supine length at birth, significant inverse associations were observed between an index of prenatal exposure to total phthalate exposure and the distance from the anus to anterior base of the penis (β = -0.191 mm per 1 μg/l, P = 0.037), penile width (β = -0.0414, P = 0.050) and stretched length (β = -0.2137, P = 0.034); prenatal exposure to mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate exposure was associated with a reduction in the stretched length of the penis (β = -0.2604, P = 0.050). Human exposure to phthalates is a public health concern, and the system most vulnerable to its potential effects seems to be the immature male reproductive tract.

Is Exposure to Bisphenol‐A and Phthalates Associated with Obesity, Metabolic Disturbances and Insulin Resistance among U.S. adults?

Emerging evidence suggests that exposure to endocrine disruptors may initiate or exacerbate adiposity and associated health problems. This study examined the associations of urinary levels of bisphenol‐A (BPA) and phthalates with several adiposity‐related conditions among U.S. adults, namely, obesity, insulin resistance and metabolic disturbances. Secondary data analyses were performed using a sample of 3,566 participants from the 2005–2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Levels of BPA and 15 phthalate metabolites were defined in quartiles. Multivariate linear and logistic regression models for the hypothesized relationships were constructed after controlling for age, sex, race, education, marital status, smoking status, physical activity, total dietary intake and urinary creatinine level. BPA was positively associated with body mass index and negatively associated with high density lipoprotein cholesterol and diastolic blood pressure. Moreover, a positive relationship was observed for BPA level with triglycerides ≥ 150 mg/dL and insulin resistance. By contrast, total phthalates were not associated with the outcomes of interest after controlling for confounders. Prospective cohort studies are needed to examine BPA and phthalates as determinants of obesity, insulin resistance and other adiposity‐related conditions.Grant Funding Source: None