Total Peatland Area Research Articles

Opportunities and risk management of peat restoration in Indonesia: lessons learned from peat restoration actors

Significant efforts have been invested to restore degraded peatlands in Indonesia considering the high mitigation potential as an effective natural climate solution. However, peat restoration in Indonesia faces challenges such as suboptimal planning and risk management. In this study, we assessed the national potential peat restoration area using spatial analysis and identified the associated risks based on lessons learned from past restoration efforts. We estimated the extent of potential restoration areas by analyzing canal networks, burnt areas, and critical land maps at the national scale. We conducted focus group discussions (FGD), in‐depth interviews, followed by a national workshop with relevant stakeholders to assess the potential risks and develop risk management strategies for peat restoration. Our analysis estimated 6 Mha, or 45% of Indonesia's total peatland area, as potentially restorable areas for rewetting and/or revegetation efforts. Of this potential area, 50% falls under concession holder management. The identified risks consisted of technical (39%), management (38%), social (17%), and economic (6%) factors, with 15 and 22% classified as extreme and high risk, respectively. Policymakers can use these findings to strengthen regulations and improve the chances of successful restoration implementation, supporting Indonesia's emissions reduction target and providing economic benefits for restoration actors.

Natural and anthropogenic factors influencing changes in peatland management in Poland

The main aim of this study is to identify trends in peatland management from the end of the nineteenth century to late twentieth century in the Tuchola Pinewoods (TP) located in NW Poland (young glacial zone, temperate climate). The analyses were performed based on the 1:100,000 Prussian topographic maps from the years 1876–1879 and the 1:50,000 Polish topographic maps from the years 1966–1986. A total of 744 peatlands were identified in TP (total area — 10,762 ha, 3.03% of the studied region). Smaller peatlands of up to 1–2 ha were found to be most numerous (15.32% of total number), whereas those exceeding 15 ha cover the largest area (75.42% of total area). The analysis revealed a tendency regarding land management of peatlands in the study period — large peatlands were adapted for agricultural purposes, and the smaller ones were mostly transformed into woodlands. The most important factors influencing the directions of changes in the use of peatlands include as follows: the type of use of the adjacent areas, implementation of anthropogenic drainage systems and location in a lake catchment or a catchment drained by rivers or streams. Considering that 85.7% of total peatland area had been drained by 1986, the risk arising from greenhouse gas emission from peatlands should be regarded as high.

Development of traditional medicinal plants on Peatland conditions in Central Kalimantan

Most of the total peatland area in Kalimantan Island and particularly in Central Kalimantan Province is suitable for agricultural development. This condition provides a great opportunity for the development of peatlands for the cultivation of traditional medicinal plants. The local society in their daily lives could not be separated from the inherent elements of tradition even though the development of science and technology is currently very fast. One of the traditional elements that are inherent at this time is the use of medicinal plants as a solution in treating various diseases. The research was conducted in Palangka Raya City, Central Kalimantan Province by conducting interviews to determine the type of selected medicinal plants and carrying out experiments for examining their ability to absorb carbon dioxide and to grow in peatland conditions. The results of the study of four types of traditional medicinal plants show that there is great potential for two types of plants, namely Semar Bags and Karamunting, whose implementation fulfills biodiversity in an agricultural land ecosystem.

Imminent loss of climate space for permafrost peatlands in Europe and Western Siberia

Human-induced climate warming by 2100 is expected to thaw large expanses of northern permafrost peatlands. However, the spatio-temporal dynamics of permafrost peatland thaw remain uncertain due to complex permafrost–climate interactions, the insulating properties of peat soils and variation in model projections of future climate. Here we show that permafrost peatlands in Europe and Western Siberia will soon surpass a climatic tipping point under scenarios of moderate-to-high warming (Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) 2-4.5, SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5). The total peatland area affected under these scenarios contains 37.0–39.5 Gt carbon (equivalent to twice the amount of carbon stored in European forests). Our bioclimatic models indicate that all of Fennoscandia will become climatically unsuitable for peatland permafrost by 2040. Strong action to reduce emissions (SSP1-2.6) by the 2090s could retain suitable climates for permafrost peatlands storing 13.9 Gt carbon in northernmost Western Siberia, indicating that socio-economic policies will determine the rate and extent of permafrost peatland thaw. Permafrost peatlands are thawing, yet the timing and spatial dynamics of thaw are not well constrained. Under moderate and high warming scenarios, permafrost peatlands in Europe and Western Siberia will cross a tipping point where the climate becomes unsuitable, putting their carbon stores at risk.

Significant sedge-mediated methane emissions from degraded tropical peatlands

Sedge-mediated gas transport to the atmosphere has been recognized as a significant CH4 pathway in northern peatlands; however, in the Tropics, this pathway remains unquantified. In Southeast Asia, degraded tropical peatlands covered with sedges and ferns have increased to approximately 10% of the total peatland area due to an increased drainage and fires. In view of this, we investigated the role of sedge, Scleria sumatrensis, in CH4 emissions from a fire-degraded tropical peatland in Brunei. At our site, we found that this sedge-mediated transport contributed >70% of the total CH4 emission, making it a significant CH4 emission pathway. We also observed significant seasonal and spatial variation with values ranging from 0.78 ± 0.14 to 4.86 ± 0.66 mgCH4 m−2 h−1. This variation was mainly attributed to water table level along with changes in sedge cover and pore-water properties (pH, salinity, cations, and anions). More importantly, these numbers are three times higher when compared to intact peat-swamp forests and 17 times higher when compared to similar degraded tropical peatland covered with shrubs.

SPATIAL MODELING OF THE THREAT OF DAMAGE TO THE PEATLAND ECOSYSTEM IN THE MAINLAND OF BENGKALIS REGENCY, RIAU PROVINCE

Peatlands are the stretch of ecosystem landscape with unique characteristics, both physically, chemically, and biodiversity. Anthropogenic activities in peatland use and disasters pose a threat to the preservation of the peatland ecosystem, which has impacts toward abiotic to the element of biodiversity (biotic). The purpose of this research is to model how the threat of the peatland ecosystem by using spatial data modeling. The method in this research using cloud-based GIS data analysis from Google earth engine, modeling distance parameter to variable modeling of interaction among landscapes on the peatland, and weight sum the value over raster-based spatial layer to determinate the thereat in the peatland ecosystem. The results of this study found zones where hot spots often occur. Modeling with euclidean distance to all modeling variables (except temperature) gives a clear effect on how the threats from each landscape interact with each other. We found that the threat of peatland damage in the high threat class dominates the plantation area reaching 30.9% of the total peatland area, whereas the forest landscape only has a high threat with a percentage of 1.9% and a low threat which the ecosystem is stable and natural reaching over 34.7 %. From this model, we succeeded in bringing up the idea to determine the priority area for policies where need to be done in handling the protection of peatland ecosystems, especially in plantations where the highest percentage of the ecosystem threat is in the high level with integrated peatland management.
 Keywords: Peatland ecosystem, landscape, threat

Fire Frequency and Related Land-Use and Land-Cover Changes in Indonesia’s Peatlands

Indonesia’s converted peatland areas have a well-established fire problem, but limited studies have examined the frequency with which they are burning. Here, we quantify fire frequency in Indonesia’s two largest peatland regions, Sumatra and Kalimantan, during 2001–2018. We report, annual areas burned, total peatland area affected by fires, amount of recurrent burning and associations with land-use and land-cover (LULC) change. We based these analyses on Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Terra/Aqua combined burned area and three Landsat-derived LULC maps (1990, 2007, and 2015) and explored relationships between burning and land-cover types. Cumulative areas burned amounted nearly half of the surface areas of Sumatra and Kalimantan but were concentrated in only ~25% of the land areas. Although peatlands cover only 13% of Sumatra and Kalimantan, annual percentage of area burning in these areas was almost five times greater than in non-peatlands (2.8% vs. 0.6%) from 2001 to 2018. Recurrent burning was more prominent in Kalimantan than Sumatra. Average fire-return intervals (FRI) in peatlands of both regions were short, 28 and 45 years for Kalimantan and Sumatra, respectively. On average, forest FRI were less than 50 years. In non-forest areas, Kalimantan had shorter average FRI than Sumatra (13 years vs. 40 years), with ferns/low shrub areas burning most frequently. Our findings highlight the significant influence of LULC change in altering fire regimes. If prevalent rates of burning in Indonesia’s peatlands are not greatly reduced, peat swamp forest will disappear from Sumatra and Kalimantan in the coming decades.

Impacts of Mauritia flexuosa degradation on the carbon stocks of freshwater peatlands in the Pastaza-Marañón river basin of the Peruvian Amazon

Tropical peat swamp forests (PSF) are characterized by high quantities of carbon (C) stored as organic soil deposits due to waterlogged conditions which slows down decomposition. Globally, Peru has one of the largest expanse of tropical peatlands, located primarily within the Pastaza-Maranon river basin in the Northwestern Peru. Peatland forests in Peru are dominated by a palm species—Mauritia flexuosa, and M. flexuosa-dominated forests cover ~ 80% of total peatland area and store ~ 2.3 Pg C. However, hydrologic alterations, land cover change, and anthropogenic disturbances could lead to PSF’s degradation and loss of valuable ecosystem services. Therefore, evaluation of degradation impacts on PSF’s structure, biomass, and overall C stocks could provide an estimate of potential C losses into the atmosphere as greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions. This study was carried out in three regions within Pastaza-Maranon river basin to quantify PSF’s floristic composition and degradation status and total ecosystem C stocks. There was a tremendous range in C stocks (Mg C ha−1) in various ecosystem pools—vegetation (45.6–122.5), down woody debris (2.1–23.1), litter (2.3–7.8), and soil (top 1 m; 109–594). Mean ecosystem C stocks accounting for the top 1 m soil were 400, 570, and 330 Mg C ha−1 in Itaya, Tigre, and Samiria river basins, respectively. Considering the entire soil depth, mean ecosystem C stocks were 670, 1160, and 330 Mg C ha−1 in Itaya, Tigre, and Samiria river basins, respectively. Floristic composition and calcium to Magnesium (Ca/Mg) ratio of soil profile offered evidence of a site undergoing vegetational succession and transitioning from minerotrophic to ombrotrophic system. Degradation ranged from low to high levels of disturbance with no significant difference between regions. Increased degradation tended to decrease vegetation and forest floor C stocks and was significantly correlated to reduced M. flexuosa biomass C stocks. Long-term studies are needed to understand the linkages between M. flexuosa harvest and palm swamp forest C stocks; however, river dynamics are important natural drivers influencing forest succession and transition in this landscape.

The peatland map of Europe

Based on the ‘European Mires Book’ of the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG), this article provides a composite map of national datasets as the first comprehensive peatland map for the whole of Europe. We also present estimates of the extent of peatlands and mires in each European country individually and for the entire continent. A minimum peat thickness criterion has not been strictly applied, to allow for (often historically determined) country-specific definitions. Our ‘peatland’ concept includes all ‘mires’, which are peatlands where peat is being formed. The map was constructed by merging national datasets in GIS while maintaining the mapping scales of the original input data. This ‘bottom-up’ approach indicates that the overall area of peatland in Europe is 593,727 km2. Mires were found to cover more than 320,000 km2 (around 54 % of the total peatland area). If shallow-peat lands (< 30 cm peat) in European Russia are also taken into account, the total peatland area in Europe is more than 1,000,000 km2 which is almost 10 % of the total surface area. Composite inventories of national peatland information, as presented here for Europe, may serve to identify gaps and priority areas for field survey, and help to cross-check and calibrate remote sensing based mapping approaches.

Topsoil removal to minimize internal eutrophication in rewetted peatlands and to protect downstream systems against phosphorus pollution: A case study from NE Germany

This study was conducted in the course of a fen rewetting project in NE Germany aiming to restore a heavily drained spring-percolation mire used as pasture land for more than 100 years. Shallow top soil removal (TSR) up to 40cm was applied to remove the upper degraded peat layer in order to eliminate accumulated nutrients and unwanted seed banks as well as generating material for infilling drain ditches and building dams. This measure has well known positive effects on species development, but very little was known about the phosphorus (P) status in the newly exposed peat soils and porewater. Therefore, we investigated (i) the P mobilisation potential of surface peat soils, (ii) net P release rates in intact soil cores with different degree of peat decomposition, and (iii) P concentrations in porewater of rewetted fen areas with TSR compared to areas without removal and refilled drain ditches. We highlighted that TSR strongly reduced the P mobilisation potential and thereby also the concentration of dissolved P in the porewater at the peat surface. Furthermore, we found low net P release rates close to 0mgPm−2d−1 (median, n=9) in the cut-over areas with less degraded peat similar to those documented for natural fens. Despite of high P concentrations up to 2.6mgL−1 in rewetted areas without TSR (about 50% of total peatland area) there was no evidence of elevated P export to other low-nutrient areas of the fen or in a close-by lake due to high P retention capacity of the iron-rich degraded peat (molar Fe:P ratios >10). It can be concluded that TSR is a suitable measure to recover nutrient poor conditions in rewetted fens in a relatively short timeframe instead of decades to centuries compared to rewetting measures without TSR. This measure is highly recommended if degraded peatlands are characterised by a low P retention capacity or low molar Fe/P ratios in degraded peat (<10) respectively and above all if downstream areas include nutrient-poor systems highly sensitive regarding slightly increased P inputs.

Peatland area change in the southern Altay Mountains over the last twenty years based on GIS and RS analysis

Analyses results of total peatland area changes in the southern Altay Mountain region over the past 20 years are discussed in this paper. These analyses were based on remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS) studies. Possible control methods are evaluated by comparing these results to other regional records and climate data. The area of the peatland zones was calculated by overlaying a peatland layer of Landsat TM (Thematic Map) image constructed by using supervised classification with a layer of slope based on a digital elevation model (DEM). The results show that slope layer is crucial to improving the accuracy of peatland extracted from TM images. The peatland area of the Altay Mountains increased from 931.5 km2 in 1990 to 977.7 km2 in 2010. This trend is consistent with the climate change in this region, due in part to increasing temperatures and precipitation, suggesting possible climate controls on peatland expansion. The increase in the peatland area in the Altay Mountains over the last 20 years has been influenced by the westerlies. Alternatively, changes in the largest highland peatland area of the Zoige Basin, located in the eastern Tibetan Plateau have been influenced by the intensity of the Asian summer monsoons. In addition to increased temperatures, decreased precipitation in the Zoige Basin and increased precipitation in the Altay Mountains, due to varied patterns of atmospheric circulation, are the probable causes for driving the change differences in these two peatland areas.

Carbon storage in peatlands: A case study on the Isle of Man

Peatlands contain about one third of the World's terrestrial carbon (C). Due to their increasing importance in the context of climate change various studies estimated regional and global carbon stocks. The greatest uncertainty in current C stock estimates is peat depth. Information on peat depth is often lacking or spatially variable, which both limit the accuracy of C stock estimates. We present measurements of peat depth on the Isle of Man and evaluate the C sink of the region. We assess the degree to which estimates of Sphagnum cover can be used to predict peat depth and we identify and quantify various uncertainties in resulting C stock estimates. Total peatland area was identified through classification of aerial photography. Peat depth and Sphagnum cover were measured on a 50m grid at four study sites in the southern hills on the Isle of Man.Peatlands at the study sites were generally shallow with low total organic carbon (TOC) contents. Peat depth seemed not to be controlled by local terrain. It is estimated that the C stored per unit area ranges from 14.7 to 22.4kgCm−2. The results provided in this study were significantly lower than in other studies, which is likely due to the land use history. The large spatial variability of peat depth resulted in large uncertainty in C stock estimates. Sphagnum proved to be important for the formation of deep peat and could potentially be used to assess the quality of peatlands. Results suggest that peatlands on the Isle of Man will likely act as a C source in the long-term if not maintained and/or restored.

The large Amazonian peatland carbon sink in the subsiding Pastaza‐Marañón foreland basin, Peru

AbstractThe carbon (C) dynamics of tropical peatlands can be of global importance, because, particularly in Southeast Asia, they are the source of considerable amounts of C released to the atmosphere as a result of land‐use change and fire. In contrast, the existence of tropical peatlands in Amazonia has been documented only recently. According to a recent study, the 120 000 km2 subsiding Pastaza‐Marañón foreland basin in Peruvian Amazonia harbours previously unstudied and up to 7.5 m thick peat deposits. We studied the role of these peat deposits as a C reserve and sink by measuring peat depth, radiocarbon age and peat and C accumulation rates at 5–13 sites. The basal ages varied from 1975 to 8870 cal yr bp, peat accumulation rates from 0.46 to 9.31 mm yr−1 and C accumulation rates from 28 to 108 g m−2 yr−1. The total peatland area and current peat C stock within the area of two studied satellite images were 21 929 km2 and 3.116 Gt (with a range of 0.837–9.461 Gt). The C stock is 32% (with a range of 8.7–98%) of the best estimate of the South American tropical peatland C stock and 3.5% (with a range of 0.9–10.7%) of the best estimate of the global tropical peatland C stock. The whole Pastaza‐Marañón basin probably supports about twice this peatland area and peat C stock. In addition to their contemporary geographical extent, these peatlands probably also have a large historical (vertical) extension because of their location in a foreland basin characterized by extensive river sedimentation, peat burial and subsidence for most of the Quaternary period. Burial of peat layers in deposits of up to 1 km thick Quaternary river sediments removes C from the short‐term C cycle between the biosphere and atmosphere, generating a long‐term C sink.

Detecting recent disturbance on Montane blanket bogs in the Wicklow Mountains, Ireland using the MODIS enhanced vegetation index

Irish peat soils are extensive, covering approximately 14–20% of the national land area. They contain between 53% and 62% of the national soil organic carbon stock. Montane blanket bog covers approximately 25% or 242 650 ha of the total peatland area in Ireland and is the dominant peatland type covering the upland area of Wicklow. Blanket bogs are very sensitive systems and have experienced much disturbance in Ireland due to overgrazing, burning, drainage, forestry and turf cutting. It has been estimated that disturbance of blanket bog, on a national area basis, ranges from 74% to 82% and in Wicklow is 57%. Disturbance can be detrimental to stocks of soil organic carbon in peatlands. Monitoring disturbance in peatlands, which tend to cover large, remote areas, is difficult and expensive using conventional surveying methods. Satellite remote sensing offers a way to gather data for these areas. In this paper a method of determining the probability of disturbance is presented. This method uses the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) in combination with univariate image differencing along with thresholding and binary logistic regression. A probability map was produced depicting the geospatial patterns and pressures on the peatland soil organic carbon stock in Wicklow. Peat soils in higher and steeper areas were more disturbed and the primary disturbance in between 2000 and 2005 was fire. Lower, flatter areas did not experience as much disturbance probably because they are wetter. The consumer's and producer's accuracy for the map was 76% and 42%, respectively.

Decomposition and Peat Accumulation in Rich Fens of Boreal Alberta, Canada

Fens are important components of Canada’s western boreal forests, occupying about 63% of the total peatland area and storing about 65% of the peatland carbon. Rich fens, dominated by true moss-dominated ground layers, make up more than half of the fens in the region. We studied organic matter accumulation in three rich fens that represent the diversity in structural types. We used in situ decomposition socks, a new method that examines actual decomposition throughout the upper peat profile over an extended period of time. We coupled our carbon loss data with macrofossil analyses and dated peat profiles using 210Pb. Across the three rich fens and in the top 39 cm of the peat column, dry mass increases on average 3.1 times. From our dry mass loss measurements, we calculate that annual mass loss from the top 39 cm varies from 0.52 to 1.08 kg m2. Vertical accumulation during the past 50 years has varied from 16 to 32 cm and during these 50 years, organic matter accumulation has averaged 174 g m−2 y−1 compared to 527 g m2 y−1 dry mass loss, with additional mass losses of 306 g m2 y−1 from peat between 50 and 150 years of age. Organic matter accumulation from our rich fens compares well with literature values from boreal bogs, whereas peat bulk densities increase about three times within the uppermost 40 cm, much more than in bogs. Hence, rich fens accumulate peat not because the plant material is especially hard to decompose, is acidic, or has the catotelm especially close to the surface, but because dense, rapidly produced inputs outweigh the relatively rapid decomposition process of the upper peat column.

Peat carbon stocks in the southern Mackenzie River Basin: uncertainties revealed in a high‐resolution case study

AbstractThe organic carbon (C) stocks contained in peat were estimated for a wetland‐rich boreal region of the Mackenzie River Basin, Canada, using high‐resolution wetland map data, available peat C characteristic and peat depth datasets, and geostatistics. Peatlands cover 32% of the 25 119 km2 study area, and consist mainly of surface‐ and/or groundwater‐fed treed peatlands. The thickness of peat deposits measured at 203 sites was 2.5 m on average but as deep as 6 m, and highly variable between sites. Peat depths showed little relationship with terrain data within 1 and 5 km, but were spatially autocorrelated, and were generalized using ordinary kriging. Polygon‐scale calculations and Monte Carlo simulations yielded a total peat C stock of 982–1025 × 1012 g C that varied in C mass per unit area between 53 and 165 kg m−2. This geostatistical approach showed as much as 10% more peat C than calculations using mean depths. We compared this estimate with an overlapping 7868 km2 portion of an independent peat C stock estimate for western Canada, which revealed similar values for total peatland area, total C stock, and total peat C mass per unit area. However, agreement was poor within ∼875 km2 grids owing to inconsistencies in peatland cover and little relationship in peat depth between estimates. The greatest disagreement in mean peat C mass per unit area occurred in grids with the largest peatland cover, owing to the spatial coincidence of large cover and deep peat in our high‐resolution assessment. We conclude that total peat C stock estimates in the southern Mackenzie Basin and perhaps in boreal western Canada are likely of reasonable accuracy. However, owing to uncertainties particularly in peat depth, the quality of information regarding the location of these large stocks at scales as wide as several hundreds of square kilometers is presently much more limited.

Threats and protection for peatlands in Eastern Canada

Peatlands (or mires) are acidic freshwater wetlands that cover 4 million km2 (i.e., 3-4 %) of the planet’s surface, according to recent estimates. Although pristine peatlands are becoming rare in many European countries, most of the peatlands in Canada remain untouched. A recent estimate of the total area of peatlands in Canada is approximately 170 million ha. Precise statistics on peatland destruction and disturbance are difficult to obtain for the entire country, due to its large size. Here, we present detailed information on two provinces of eastern Canada : Québec and New-Brunswick. Approximately 120 000 ha of peatland in Québec have been flooded as a result of construction of hydroelectric dams, the main factor for peat-land lost in that province. It represents 1 % of the total peat-land area. For New-Brunswick, peat extraction is the main threat for peat-lands, with 6 800 ha of peat-land mined for horticultural peat which represents 5 % of the total peat-land resources of that province. Nevertheless, peat-lands in certain regions are strongly affected by human activities and conservation actions must be undertaken to assure equal representation of peatlands across the country. Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and New-Brunswick are the four provinces that have achieved the highest conservation rates with 25, 15, 12,5 and 11 % of their peatlands under protection, respectively. The situation is different in other provinces such as Québec, where 3,6 % of the total peatland area occurs in protected areas. Provincial legislation and protection plans need to be further developed in the future to attain international standards.

Habitat Management for the Eastern Massasauga in a Central New York Peatland

The eastern massasauga rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus catenatus) is rare throughout much of its range, especially where this species is associated with weakly minerotrophic peatlands. Because such habitats can rapidly become unsuitable through succession, we established experimental plots to evaluate the effects of cutting, burning, herbivore exclusion following cutting and burning, and herbicide application on eastern massasauga habitat. After the first growing season, shrub density, shrub basal area, and shrub height were greater (P = 0.008) in cut-only (CO) areas than in areas that were cut-and-burned (CB). After 3 years, only shrub height continued to be greater in CO areas (P = 0.001). Both basal area and shrub height increased in both treatments at the same rate, while the shrub mountain-holly (Nemopanthus mucronata) became less important in the plots over time; however, this species still maintained the highest importance value (IV) over the 3-year study period. We conducted a second experiment to evaluate browsing by mammals and found shrub height increased in all treatment types over the 2 years monitored (P = 0.009) and, at the end of the first year, was consistently greater in CO plots (P = 0.001). At the end of the second year, this relation held only in fenced compared to unfenced plots, indicating that browsing had a significant effect on growth in shrub height. The herbicide glyphosate was very effective when applied as a broadcast foliar spray. Abundance and diversity of small mammals in the shrub peatland were lower than in surrounding forested wetland habitat. Over the 3-year monitoring period, abundance and diversity of small mammals increased in the treated areas of the shrub peatland; however, it is unclear if this increase was a permanent or a transitory effect. Data on eastern massasauga use of these cleared areas were inconclusive; however, 9 of 89 (10.1%) aboveground radiolocations from 9 individual snakes tracked in 1991 occurred in or around treatment areas that constituted only 2.5% of the total peatland area.

Carbon pools and accumulation in peatlands of the former Soviet Union

To date, the areal extent, carbon pools, rate of carbon accumulation, and role of peatlands of the former Soviet Union (FSU) in the terrestrial carbon cycle has not been fully recognized. This is a consequence of the fact that many peatlands in the FSU, especially noncommercial peatlands, were never studied and properly mapped. An estimate of the areal extent, carbon pools, and rate of carbon accumulation in peatlands of the FSU obtained by interrelating a number of regional databases and maps, including formerly classified maps, is presented herein. Commercial peatlands were categorized by regional type which facilitated an evaluation of their age and quality. Noncommercial peatlands were evaluated from classified regional topographic maps. Air photographs were used to identify peatlands of northern landscapes. The total peatland area of the FSU was estimated at 165 Mha (106 hectares) which was two times greater than the most recent estimates based on thematic maps. The peat carbon pool was estimated at 215 Pg C. Half of this amount was in raised bogs. The rate of peat accumulation varied from 12 g C m−2 yr−1 (polygonal mires) to 72–80 g C m−2 yr−1 (fens and marshes). The total rate of carbon accumulation in FSU peatlands was 52 Tg C yr−1. Carbon emissions from peat utilization in the FSU were estimated at 122 Tg C yr−1. Thus, at present, peat accumulation/utilization in the FSU is a net source of approximately 70 Tg C yr−1 to the atmosphere.

Peat, horticulture and environment

Peat-based growing media underpin the horticultural industry in the UK, although production sites cover less than 0.5% of the total peatland area. In recent years Peat Producer's Association members have released over 20% of their holdings to English Nature, representing virtually all the areas of current conservation value. The Association is now engaged in the assessment and development of restoration measures.