Total Pasture Area Research Articles

PASTURE LAND COVER CHANGE IN SÃO PAULO STATE, BRAZIL

Abstract. Pastures are complex land covers with a variety of land use systems. This land cover occupies large areas in the globe and is mainly used for livestock production. Brazil is one of the largest livestock producers and has extensive pasture areas. We analyzed the pasture land cover change of the São Paulo State between the years 2000 to 2015. São Paulo was chosen as study case due to its large industrial and agricultural importance and its expressive land cover changes over past decades. It was analyzed land covers databases generated by the Brazilian Annual Land Use and Land Cover Mapping Project (MapBiomas Project) – Collection 4. Transition matrix was generated to analyze the land cover change during the period. Gain, loss, total change, net change and swap were calculated in terms of area. Total pasture area decreased but continues the largest land cover of the São Paulo State; with 79.5% of persistence in the area. Main changes were from losses of pastures and gains in agriculture. Most of the changes to pasture came from other non vegetated areas and grassland categories. These results demonstrated the relevance of pastures areas in land cover change dynamics to address land use policy and plan future land use scenarios.

Estoques de carbono e nitrogênio no Sistema Silvipastoril com Núcleos: a nucleação aplicada viabilizando a pecuária de baixo carbono

A agricultura tem se mostrado um dos principais emissores dos gases de efeito estufa (GEE). Grande parte dessa emissão está relacionada ao sistema de produção e/ou manejo inadequado. Este estudo avaliou os efeitos do Sistema Silvipastoril com Núcleos (SSPnúcleos) na massa do dossel forrageiro (pasture cover), e nos estoques de carbono e nitrogênio quando implantado em pastagens sem árvores (PSA). As variáveis foram mensuradas em três situações, duas áreas dentro do SSPnúcleos - área próximo dos núcleos (APN) e área ensolarada entre os núcleos (AEN), e pastagem sem árvores (PSA). A participação proporcional das variáveis das áreas APN (30%) e AEN (60%) em cada hectare de pastagem originou as variáveis do SSPnúcleos como um todo. O SSPnúcleos não afetou a massa do dossel forrageiro e os estoques de carbono e nitrogênio (p<0,05). AEN apresentou valores superiores de biomassa e estoque de carbono que a PSA. O SSPnúcleos manteve a massa do dossel e o estoque de carbono por hectare, mesmo em 90% da área, já que 10% são o interior dos núcleos. O SSPnúcleos tem potencial para mitigar a emissão dos GEE da pecuária convencional minimizando o impacto nas mudanças climáticas.

Choosing pasture maps: An assessment of pasture land classification definitions and a case study of Brazil

Pasture land occupies extensive areas and is increasingly of interest for sustainable intensification, land use diversification, greenhouse gas emission mitigation, and bioenergy expansion. Accurate maps of pasture and other managed land covers are needed for monitoring, intercomparison, assessing potential uses, and planning. Yet, land maps can be generated from different types of classification datasets – i.e. as a land use or land cover type – as well as different sources. In this study our aim was to assess and compare land use and land cover definitions for pasture, and examine variability in the resulting pasture land classification maps. First, we conducted a review of pasture definitions in commonly used mapping databases. We then performed a case study involving Brazil, a dominant global producer of pasture-based livestock. Six geospatial databases were harmonized and compared to each other and to MODIS land cover for Brazil including the Cerrado and Amazon biomes, which are internationally recognized for their ecological value. Total pasture area estimates for Brazil ranged by a factor greater than four, from about 430,000 km2 to over 1.7 million km2. Our analysis showed high variability in pasture land maps depending on the definitions, methods and underlying datasets used to generate them. The results are illustrative of a symptomatic problem for all manage land datasets, demonstrating the need for land categories studies and geospatial data resources that fully define land terms and describe measurable management attributes. Additionally, the suitability of individual geospatial datasets for different types of land mapping must be better described and reported. These recommendations would help bring more consistency in the consideration of managed lands in research, reporting, and policy development, as demonstrated here for pasture land using six case study datasets from multiple sources.

The assembly of plant–patch networks in Mediterranean alpine grasslands

AbstractAimsHarsh environmental conditions in alpine ecosystems shape vegetation structure into patches, where many different plant species cluster and grow together. Yet, which factors are important for the structure and dynamics of such plant–patch networks remains poorly understood. We aim to assess which and how environmental and biotic factors predict the assembly of plant–patch networks along a mountain range.MethodsWe examined the distribution of plant species in more than 5500 vegetation patches in 37 Mediterranean alpine grasslands distributed along a 500 m altitudinal gradient (National Park of Sierra Guadarrama, Spain). We established a plant–patch network for each grassland community and analyzed how nestedness and modularity vary with environmental (altitude, insolation and soil conditions) and biotic factors (number of species per plot, mean patch area and total pasture area).Important FindingsPlant–patch networks showed consistent, non-random patterns characterized by a nested, but not modular, structure, which suggests that positive associations among co-occurring specialists promote their growth within patches as subsets of a pool with more generalist species. Both nestedness and modularity of plant–patch networks varied among grasslands. Specifically, nestedness decreased with increasing species per plot and increased with mean patch area, while it was independent of environmental variables; modularity increased with increasing pasture area and species per plot. The negative relationship between species per plot and nested patterns may be linked to the restricted number of species that can coexist within the same patch at a given size. Moreover, the positive relationship between patch size and nestedness indicates that the growth of rare plant species within vegetation patches occupied by more abundant species is facilitated in bigger rather than smaller patches. Furthermore, these results indicate that the nested assembly of vegetation patches may be independent of abiotic conditions. These findings suggest that large and unfragmented vegetation patches are fundamental for the maintenance of plant diversity in alpine grasslands. Looking at species distribution at fine spatial scales may shed new light on the biotic processes underlying plant network assembly and provide novel ways for conserving biodiversity.

Spatial and seasonal variability of the water quality characteristics of a river in Northeast Brazil

This study is aimed to evaluate the influence of land use/land cover as well as the seasonality on the variability of water quality in the Siriri River basin, in the State of Sergipe, Brazil. The following parameters were monitored: temperature (Temp), pH, electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen (DO), total nitrogen (TN), nitrate as N (NO3−-N), total phosphorus (TP), chlorophyll-a (Chl-a), total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity (Turb), thermotolerant coliforms (TCol), water level (WL), total agricultural area (AGR), total pasture area (PAS), total precipitation in 1 day (Pr1d), 10 days (Pr10d), and 30 days (Pr30d) prior to water sampling date. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and principal component analysis (PCA)/factor analysis (FA) were utilized to evaluate the data. The results indicate the predominance of organic and biological pollutants in the Siriri River basin, which are related to agricultural activities and urban sewage, mainly in the wet periods. The ANOVA indicates significant influence of locality on pH, EC, TDS, DO, TCol, Chl-a, Turb, TN, TP, and WL. Seasonality factor has a significant influence on Temp, NO3−-N, Chl-a, Turb, TN, TP, Pr1d, Pr10d, and Pr30d. The PCA highlights the influence of agricultural activities in component 1 (PC1), explaining 26% of the variance of the river water quality in the watershed.

Assessing the Spatial and Occupation Dynamics of the Brazilian Pasturelands Based on the Automated Classification of MODIS Images from 2000 to 2016

The pasturelands areas of Brazil constitute an important asset for the country, as the main food source for the world’s largest commercial herd, representing the largest stock of open land in the country, occupying ~21% of the national territory. Understanding the spatio-temporal dynamics of these areas is of fundamental importance for the goal of promoting improved territorial governance, emission mitigation and productivity gains. To this effect, this study mapped, through objective criteria and automatic classification methods (Random Forest) applied to MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) images, the totality of the Brazilian pastures between 2000 and 2016. Based on 90 spectro-temporal metrics derived from the Red, NIR and SWIR1 bands and distinct vegetation indices, distributed between dry and wet seasons, a total of 17 pasture maps with an approximate overall accuracy of 80% were produced with cloud-computing (Google Earth Engine). During this period, the pasture area varied from ~152 (2000) to ~179 (2016) million hectares. This expansion pattern was consistent with the bovine herd variation and mostly occurred in the Amazon, which increased its total pasture area by ~15 million hectares between 2000 and 2005, while the Cerrado, Caatinga and Pantanal biomes showed an increase of ~8 million hectares in this same period. The Atlantic Forest was the only biome in which there was a retraction of pasture areas throughout this series. In general, the results of this study suggest the existence of two relevant moments for the Brazilian pasture land uses. The first, strongly supported by the opening of new grazing areas, prevailed between 2000 and 2005 and mostly occurred in the Deforestation Arc and in the Matopiba regions. From 2006 on, the total pasture area in Brazil showed a trend towards stabilization, indicating a slight intensification of livestock activity in recent years.

Reconciling rural development and ecological restoration: Strategies and policy recommendations for the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

Increased demand for both agricultural production and forest restoration may lead to increased competition for land in the next decades. Sustainably increasing cattle ranching productivity is a potential solution to reconcile different land uses, while also improving biodiversity conservation and the provision of ecosystem services. If not strategically implemented in integration with complementary policies, sustainable intensification can however result in negative environmental, economic and social effects. We analyzed the potential for sustainable intensification as a solution for a conflict between agricultural expansion and forest restoration in the Paraitinga Watershed at the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, a global biodiversity hotspot. In addition, we provide policy recommendations for sustainable development in the region, based on interviews with producers and local actors. We found that the Paraitinga Watershed has the potential to increase its cattle-ranching productivity and, as a result, relinquish spared land for other uses. This was true even in the most conservative intensification scenario considered (50% of the maximum potential productivity reached), in which 76,702ha of pastures can be spared for other uses (46% of total pasture area). We found that restoration, apiculture and rural tourism are promising activities to promote sustainable development in the region, thus potentially increasing food production and mitigating competition for land. Our study shows that results from socioeconomic interviews and biophysical modelling of potential productivity increases offer robust insights into practical solutions on how to pursue sustainable development in one of the world’s most threatened biodiversity hotspots.

Characteristics of agriculture in Uzbekistan in the years of independence

Abstract: Agriculture plays an important role in the national economy of the Uzbekistan Republic. The article analyzes the main changes and reforms undertaken since independence. Particular attention is paid to the develop-ment of farming enterprises, structural changes in the crop area, land reclamation. Keywords: agriculture, agricultural products, farm and farmer facilities, cotton, grain, land reclamation, reforms. Deep reforms were implemented in the Uzbekistan ag-riculture after the country gained its independence. This pe-riod can be characterized as a stage of intensive agriculture development. At that time agricultural products were the main source of foreign exchange resources. They were vital for the country food and became the main area of equip-ment and technology import. Special attention was paid to the grain production. The goal was to achieve self-sufficiency, and this task was carried out by limiting the monopoly of cot -ton. For example, from 1990 to 2013, the size of cultivated areas increased from 433.2 thousand acres to 1 610.7 thousand acres, or almost 4 times. The productivity of land increased from 12.8 to 44.1 hwt/ha (Fig. 1). The harvest gross increased from 553.5 thousand tons to 6545.3 thousand tons. The size of cultivated areas was increased with re-cultivated land and areas irrigated for cotton. Moreover, a higher productivity was achieved. In 1993–2013 the amount of land planted with cotton was reduced from 1721.0 thousand hectares to 1 342.5 thou -sand hectares. Thereby the raw cotton production decreased from 4 646.3 thousand tons to 3 442.3 thousand tons.In the studied years you can easily observe the expan-sion of cultivated land with land for food. Reduction of land for cotton was much less. At that time, with the exception of pasture for cattle from the agricultural lands, reducing acre-age for feed grains in irrigated lands created a number of problems in the animal husbandry. In 1991 the agricultural sector owned 92 % of the pastures; the total pasture area de-creased by 40% due to the extremely haphazard livestock production and reduce of pasture fertility reduce without its recreating [1].One part of unsuitable pastures was included in the cat-egory of reserved lands, and the other became forest fund. Country livestock has about 13 million hectares of grazing land, most of which are located on the territory of the Karakal -pakstan Republic, as well as Bukhara, Kashkadarya and Navoi regions, where there is the bulk of grown cattle (sheep).The Tashkent, Navoi and Khorezm regions lead in live-stock productivity in the country. When it comes to gross fig -ures, Samarkand, Khorezm, Kashkadarya, Bukhara become leaders in the meat production of meat. Samarkand, Khorezm, Kashkadarya take the first place in milk production. Cities like Tashkent, Samarkand, Khorezm and Andijan are leaders in the egg production. Kashkadarya, Samarkand, Navoi, Bukhara and Djizzak are leading in the production of wool [2].

Improved pasture and herd management to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from a Brazilian beef production system

Brazilian farms produce 15% of the world׳s beef, and consequently they are important sources of greenhouse gases (GHG). The beef sector faces the challenge to meet the increasing demand without further increase of GHG emissions. To reduce the pressure on forests it is essential that farmers are provided with sustainable options of intensification of pasture growth and cattle production. The improvement of the whole-farm beef production system is essential to reduce emissions from all relevant sources, like land use, land use change and livestock. The main objective was to quantify the GHG gas emissions of different beef production systems in Brazil. Therefore we developed a whole farm model that allowed us to calculate GHG emissions from all-important sources (only “on-farm” i.e., not considering emissions from the production of fertilizer, lime or other inputs) for a beef production system in Brazil. We studied the effects of intensification in several steps, starting with a baseline extensive system, followed by four steps of intensification. The main differences between the scenarios are related to pasture management, i.e. continuous or rotational grazing, pasture condition, stocking rate, use of lime and fertilizer, and irrigation; and animal performance, i.e. calving interval, age at first calving, conception rate, total life time until slaughter, and genetic improvement. Compared to the baseline extensive scenario, the total pasture area decreased up to 92% in the most intensified system, while beef production nearly doubled. Intensification increased the number of calves, steers and heifers decreased the total production cycle time and the slaughter age of the steers. Overall, the emission of kgCO2eqkgcarcass−1 was lower with increasing intensification, with an average of 41kgCO2eqkgcarcass−1. The emissions of CH4 decreased, while the emissions of N2O and CO2 increased due to nitrogen fertilizer and lime application. The intensification of beef production, through improved pasture and herd management, reduced the GHG emissions per kg of beef from 2% to 57%. The complete cycle of beef production in intensified systems required less time (years) and area (ha), and may thus help to alleviate the pressure on forests.

Progress in the Brazilian cattle industry: an analysis of the Agricultural Censuses database

Brazil is the world’s largest exporter of beef and home to the world’s biggest commercial beef herd. So a study was conducted to understand how the Brazilian cattle industry has developed, by analysing the Agricultural Censuses carried out in 1985, 1995 and 2006. Databases (per region) were collected: bovine herd, total pasture area (natural and cultivated) and forage storage silos, and the stocking rate calculated (heads/ha). Brazilian regions are: North, North-east, South-east, South and Midwest. The average annual growth rate (%/year) was calculated. In 1985, Brazil had 128 million bovine heads, raised on 179.2 million hectares of pasture (0.71 head/ha). In 2006, the bovine herd went up to 176.1 million heads, raised on 160 million hectares of pasture (1.1 head/ha). The North region (Amazon forest) showed the highest growth in bovine herd (6.3%/year), and in total (1.2%/year) and cultivated (4.0%/year) pasture areas, increasing the stocking rate from 0.43 (1985) up to 1.21 head/ha (2006). The Midwest region accounted for the largest bovine herd in 2006 and showed the second highest growth in herd size (2.4%/year) and in cultivated (1.9%/year) pasture area, increasing the stocking rate from 0.61 (1985) up to 1.01 head/ha (2006). The South-east and South regions (the most developed regions) presented negative growth in herd size and total pasture, but with the highest stocking rate in 2006 (1.24 and 1.5 head/ha, respectively). The displacement of the cattle industry towards North concerns the government, due to the Amazon’s deforestation, but the intensification of the production system has relieved the pressure on the forest.

Morphogenic responses of two Brachiaria genotypes to clipping frequency

Tropical grasslands represent an important resource for the Brazilian cattle industry, which is heavily dependent on grazed pastures. Total pasture area in the country totals 196 Mha (23% of the country’s land area) (FAO 2013). The genus Brachiaria represents around 85% of cultivated pastures in Brazil (Moreira et al. 2009), 40% of which are established with B. brizantha cv. Marandu (Barbosa 2006). Mulato II is a new hybrid brachiariagrass cultivar, which has been developed to improve agronomic characteristics, broaden the range of adaptation, and ensure high forage production and nutritive value. It has also been viewed as a means of reducing the dependence on the Marandu palisadegrass monoculture (Argel et al. 2007). The use of new cultivars should be based on adequate understanding of physiological processes and growth potential under a range of management practices. Morphogenic characteristics allow for accessing herbage accumulation potential through the measurement of tissue synthesis and senescence in forage plants. Management practices such as defoliation frequency can modify assimilate partitioning in the forage plant, affecting morphogenic characteristics related to growth rate and forage nutritive value. The objective of this research was to describe and explain morphogenic differences between Marandu palisadegrass and Mulato II brachiariagrass as affected by harvest frequency.

Performance by spring and fall-calving cows grazing with full, limited, or no access to toxic Neotyphodium coenophialum-infected tall fescue1

Replacing toxic, wild-type Neotyphodium coenophialum-infected tall fescue (E+) with nontoxic, N. coenophialum-infected tall fescue (NE+) has improved cow performance, but producer acceptance of NE+ has been slow. The objective was to compare performance by spring- and fall-calving cows grazing either E+ or NE+ at different percentages of the total pasture area. Gelbvieh×Angus crossbred cows (n=178) were stratified by BW and age within calving season and allocated randomly to 1 of 14 groups representing 5 treatments for a 3-yr study: i) Fall-calving on 100% E+ (F100); ii) Spring-calving on 100% E+ (S100); iii) Fall-calving on 75% E+ and 25% NE+ (F75); iv) Spring-calving on 75% E+ and 25% NE+ (S75); and v) Spring-calving on 100% NE+ (SNE100). Groups allocated to F75 and S75 grazed E+ until approximately 28 d before breeding and weaning, then were then moved to their respective NE+ pasture area for 4 to 6 wk; those allocated to F100, S100, and SNE100 grazed their pastures throughout the entire year. Samples of tall fescue were gathered from specific cells within each pasture at the time cows were moved into that particular cell (∼1 sample/mo). Blood samples were collected from the cows at the start and end of the breeding season. Stocking rate for each treatment was 1 cow/ha. Forage IVDMD, CP, and total ergot alkaloid concentrations were affected (P<0.05) by the treatment×sampling date interaction. Hay offered, cow BW, and BCS at breeding, end of breeding, and at weaning were greater (P<0.05) from fall-calving vs. spring-calving. Cow BW at weaning was greater (P<0.05) from F75 and S75 vs. F100 and S100. The calving season×NE+ % interaction affected (P<0.05) calving rates. Preweaning calf BW gain, actual and adjusted weaning BW, ADG, sale price, and calf value at weaning were greater (P<0.05) from fall-calving vs. spring-calving and from SNE100 vs. S75 except for sale price which was greater (P<0.05) from S75 vs. SNE100. Cow concentrations of serum prolactin at breeding and serum NEFA at the end of breeding were affected (P<0.05) by the calving season×NE+ % interaction. Serum Zn and Cu concentrations from cows were affected (P<0.05) by calving season. A fall-calving season may be more desirable for cows grazing E+, resulting in greater calving rates, cow performance, and calf BW at weaning, whereas limited access to NE+ may increase calving rates, serum prolactin, and NEFA concentrations during certain times in the production cycle, particularly in spring-calving cows.

Physical Characteristics, Shade Distribution, and Tall Fescue Effects on Cow Temporal/Spatial Distribution in Midwestern Pastures

Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution of water resources may occur from congregation of cattle near streams or ponds. Therefore, relationships of physical characteristics, shade distribution, and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) prevalence in cool-season grass pastures to the temporal/spatial distribution of grazing cattle were evaluated in two studies on beef cow/calf farms. Global positioning system (GPS) collars recorded the location of 2–3 cows per pasture at 10-min intervals for 5–14 d in the spring, summer, and fall annually. Pasture botanical composition was visually assessed annually. In Study 1, cow location was recorded on five pastures ranging in size from 13 ha to 125 ha with 1.9–3.8% of the pasture area in a stream or pond (water source) and 2–30% of the pasture area within 30.5 m of the water source (waterside zone) for 3 yr. Shade covered 27–73% of the pasture area with 3–64% of shade located within waterside zone. In Study 2, cow location was recorded in three pastures with areas of 8 ha, 10 ha, and 15 ha with 17.8%, 43.4%, and 14.7% of the total area and 28%, 73%, and 68% of the total shade in the waterside zone for 1 yr. In Study 1, proportions of cow observations within the waterside zone increased with decreasing pasture area (r2 = 0.61) and increasing proportions of the total pasture area (r2 = 0.37) and shade (r2 = 0.29) within the waterside zone. In Study 2, proportion of cow observations in the waterside zone increased as the proportion of total area (r2 = 0.62) and shade (r2 = 0.42) in the waterside zone increased. Results imply more restrictive measures to minimize the risks of NPS pollution of water resources may be most effective in smaller and narrow pastures. La contaminación de origen no identificado (NPS) de los recursos hídricos, puede ocurrir debido a la congregación del ganado cerca de los arroyos o estanques. Por lo tanto, las relaciones de las características físicas, distribución de la sombra y la incidencia de Festuca alta (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) en potreros con gramíneas de crecimiento invernal en la distribución temporal/espacial del pastoreo del ganado se evaluaron en dos estudios en una granja de vaca-becerro. Collares de sistema de posicionamiento global (GPS) registraron la ubicación de 2 a 3 vacas por potrero a intervalos de 10 minutos de 5 a 14 en la primavera, verano y otoño anualmente. La composición botánica de los potreros se evaluó visualmente cada año. En el estudio 1, conducido durante tres años, la ubicación de las vacas se registró en cinco potreros con un rango de 13 a 125 hectáreas de extensión, con 1.9 a 3.8% de la superficie del potrero en arroyos o estanques (fuente de agua) y 2 a 30% de la superficie del potrero dentro de 30.5 m de distancia de la fuente de agua (zona de agua) para 3 años. Los sombreaderos cubrieron de 27 a 37% del área del potrero con 3 a 64% de la sombra ubicada dentro de la zona del agua. En el estudio 2, la ubicación de las vacas se registró en tres potreros con áreas de 8, 10, y 15 hectáreas con 17.8, 43.4 y 14.7% de la superficie total y 28, 73 y 68% de la sombra total en la zona del agua y se evaluó durante un año. En el estudio 1, las proporciones de las observaciones de las vacas dentro de la zona del agua aumentaron con la disminución de la superficie del potrero (r2 = 0.61) y aumentaron las proporciones de la superficie total del potrero (r2 = 0.37) y con la sombra (r2 = 0.29) dentro de la zona del agua. En el estudio 2, aumento la proporción de observaciones de vaca en la zona del agua conforme la proporción de la superficie total (r2 = 0.62) y sombra (r2 = 0.42) en la zona del agua aumentó. Estos resultados sugieren medidas más preventivas para minimizar los riesgos de contaminación de NPS en los recursos hídricos y puede ser más eficaz en potreros más estrechos y pequeños.

Meeting in the middle: the challenge of meso-level integration

Pasture land occupies extensive areas and is increasingly of interest for sustainable intensification, land use diversification, greenhouse gas emission mitigation, and bioenergy expansion. Accurate maps of pasture and other managed land covers are needed for monitoring, intercomparison, assessing potential uses, and planning. Yet, land maps can be generated from different types of classification datasets – i.e. as a land use or land cover type – as well as different sources. In this study our aim was to assess and compare land use and land cover definitions for pasture, and examine variability in the resulting pasture land classification maps. First, we conducted a review of pasture definitions in commonly used mapping databases. We then performed a case study involving Brazil, a dominant global producer of pasture-based livestock. Six geospatial databases were harmonized and compared to each other and to MODIS land cover for Brazil including the Cerrado and Amazon biomes, which are internationally recognized for their ecological value. Total pasture area estimates for Brazil ranged by a factor greater than four, from about 430,000 km2 to over 1.7 million km2. Our analysis showed high variability in pasture land maps depending on the definitions, methods and underlying datasets used to generate them. The results are illustrative of a symptomatic problem for all manage land datasets, demonstrating the need for land categories studies and geospatial data resources that fully define land terms and describe measurable management attributes. Additionally, the suitability of individual geospatial datasets for different types of land mapping must be better described and reported. These recommendations would help bring more consistency in the consideration of managed lands in research, reporting, and policy development, as demonstrated here for pasture land using six case study datasets from multiple sources.

SEED AGENCIES FOR GRASSLANDS' CULTIVARS

The seed agency system was set up in New Zealand to inject some netl; life into the industry. Over the past 30 years the New Zealand Herbage Seeds Industry has been in a no-growth phase: it has not expanded; the amount of certified seed has been static, if not declining; exports have stayed at the same level in terms of percentage of total exports; the-amount of pasture renewal has stayed at 2-3% of the total pasture area. During this time there was little promotion of the different cultivars of grass seed, presumably because individual companies were reluctant to spend money on advertising which would not benefit them specifically. By bringing in a system whereby individual companies within New Zealand have the responsibility for individual cultivars, expenditure on promotion is directly recoupable by the company doing the promoting. Furthermore, planned marketing with amounts of seed grown being linked into projected markets which have been created or developed both here and overseas, is possible.