Total Neurons Research Articles

Total neuron counts in vulnerable and resilient entorhinal subregions

AbstractBackgroundNeuron loss exceeds tau tangle formation (Gomez‐Isla et al. 1997) and p‐tau vulnerability differs by layer and subfield in entorhinal cortex (Llamas‐Rodriguez et al., 2022). Some subfields succumb to tau early and other subfields later in Alzheimer’s disease. Investigating neuron loss by subfield is pivotal for early diagnosis.MethodWe applied the optical fractionator to count neurons (West, 1991) using Stereoinvestigator (MicroBrightField Inc) in layer II subfields, ER, EI, and ECs, in n = 14 postmortem samples. The samples were preclinical controls, including 6 females, 8 males. A sampling grid (450 µm x 450 µm) with 75 µm x 75 µm counting frame was randomly overlaid. The neurons were counted using a 100x objective (Figure 1). The disector height was 10 µm; with guard zones 3 µm each. Counting inclusion criteria were 1) nucleolus in focus, 2) within inclusion lines, 3) did not touch exclusion lines. The tissue thickness was collected at each counting site (average 20.4 µm). The average coefficient of error was 0.08.ResultTotal neuron counts in EI was 172,429, with ER at 133,161 and EC lower at 103,493 (averaged across samples). Total neuron counts for EI were significantly different than ECs (one‐way ANOVA, p = 0.0033, Tukey’s multiple comparison test, p = 0.0023). Total neuron number from summed subfields did not correlate with age (r = ‐0.2816). Total neuron count for males and females differed but difference was not significant (t‐test, p = 0.5669). No significant differences between total neuron number and the preclinical stages (control, Braak stage I and II samples, averaged) (ANOVA, p = 0.8732).ConclusionThese findings establish a baseline for total neuron number in specific entorhinal subregions of vulnerability (e.g., ECs) and resilience (e.g., ER, EI) at preclinical stage. These data support a previous report that total neuron number in frontal and temporal cortices does not decrease with age (Freeman et al.,2008). Related studies have applied the NvVref method (Gomez‐Isla et al. 1996, Gomez‐Isla et al. 1997, Freeman et al. 2008), but with varying tau pathology at this stage, optical fractionator is the ideal approach. The total neuron number was consistent with age, however, individual variability in the sample set was evident.

A Comprehensive Stereology Method for Quantitative Evaluation of Neuronal Injury, Neurodegeneration, and Neurogenesis in Brain Disorders.

Neuronal injury, neurodegeneration, and neuroanatomical changes are key pathological features of various neurological disorders, including epilepsy, stroke, traumatic brain injury, Parkinson's disease, autism, and Alzheimer's disease. Accurate quantification of neurons and interneurons in different brain regions is critical for understanding the progression of neurodegenerative disorders in animal models. Traditional scoring methods are often superficial, biased, and unreliable for evaluating neuropathology. Stereology, a quantitative tool that uses 3-dimensional visualization of cells, provides a robust protocol for evaluating neuronal injury and neurodegeneration. This article presents a comprehensive and optimized stereology protocol for unbiased quantification of neuronal injury, neurodegeneration, and neurogenesis in rat and mouse models. This protocol involves precise counting of injured neurons, surviving neurons, and interneurons through immunohistochemical processing of brain sections for NeuN(+) principal neurons, parvalbumin (PV+) interneurons, doublecortin (DCX+) newborn neurons, and Fluoro-Jade B (FJB+)-stained injured cells. Predefined hippocampal and amygdala regions were identified and analyzed using a Visiopharm stereology software-driven compound microscope. Cell density and absolute cell numbers were determined using the optical fractionation method. Our stereology protocol accurately estimated 1.5 million total NeuN(+) principal neurons and 0.05 million PV(+) interneurons in the rat hippocampus, as well as 1.2 million total principal neurons and 0.025 million interneurons in the mouse hippocampus. FJB(+) counting provided a quantitative index of damaged neurons, and the stereology of DCX(+) neurons demonstrated the extent of neurogenesis. Overall, this stereology protocol enables precise, accurate, and unbiased counting of total neurons in any brain region. This offers a reliable quantitative tool for studying neuronal injury and protection in various models of acute brain injury, neurotoxicity, and chronic neurological disorders. © 2024 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Stereological quantification of principal neurons, interneurons, and immature neurons in the hippocampus in rat brain sections Basic Protocol 2: Stereological quantification of principal neurons, interneurons, and immature neurons in the hippocampus in mouse brain sections Basic Protocol 3: Stereological quantification of injured or necrotized cells stained with Fluoro-Jade B in the hippocampus and amygdala in rats Basic Protocol 4: Stereological quantification of injured or necrotized cells stained with Fluoro-Jade B in the hippocampus and amygdala regions in mice Basic Protocol 5: Brain fixation and histology processing Basic Protocol 6: Immunochemistry of principal neurons, interneurons, and newborn neurons Basic Protocol 7: Fluoro-Jade B staining of injured neurons.

Deficiency of DDX3X results in neurogenesis defects and abnormal behaviors via dysfunction of the Notch signaling

The molecular mechanisms underlying the neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) caused by DDX3X variants remain poorly understood. In this study, we validated that de novo DDX3X variants are enriched in female developmental delay (DD) patients and mainly affect the evolutionarily conserved amino acids based on a meta-analysis of 46,612 NDD trios. We generated a ddx3x deficient zebrafish allele, which exhibited reduced survival rate, DD, microcephaly, adaptation defects, anxiolytic behaviors, social interaction deficits, and impaired spatial recognitive memory. As revealed by single-nucleus RNA sequencing and biological validations, ddx3x deficiency leads to reduced neural stem cell pool, decreased total neuron number, and imbalanced differentiation of excitatory and inhibitory neurons, which are responsible for the behavioral defects. Indeed, the supplementation of L-glutamate or glutamate receptor agonist ly404039 could partly rescue the adaptation and social deficits. Mechanistically, we reveal that the ddx3x deficiency attenuates the stability of the crebbp mRNA, which in turn causes downregulation of Notch signaling and defects in neurogenesis. Our study sheds light on the molecular pathology underlying the abnormal neurodevelopment and behavior of NDD patients with DDX3X mutations, as well as providing potential therapeutic targets for the precision treatment.

Intestinal Motility Dysfunction in Goto-Kakizaki Rats: Role of the Myenteric Plexus.

The morpho-quantitative analysis of myenteric plexus neurons in the small and large intestines of 120-day-old male GK rats was investigated. The diabetes was confirmed by high fasting blood glucose levels. The myenteric plexus was evaluated through wholemount immunofluorescence. The morpho-quantitative analyses included evaluating neuronal density (neurons per ganglion) of the total neuronal population, the cholinergic and nitrergic subpopulations, and enteric glial cells per ganglion. The cell body area of 100 neurons per segment per animal was measured. The total neurons and nitrergic subpopulation were unaltered in the GK rats' small and large intestines. The cholinergic subpopulation exhibited decreased density in the three segments of the small intestine and an increased number in the proximal colon of the GK rats. The number of enteric glial cells increased in the ileum of the GK rats, which could indicate enteric gliosis caused by the intestinal inflammatory state. The area of the cell body was increased in the total neuronal population of the jejunum and ileum of the GK rats. Frequency histograms of the cell body area distribution revealed the contribution of cholinergic neurons to larger areas in the jejunum and nitrergic neurons in the ileum. The constipation previously reported in GK rats might be explained by the decrease in the density of cholinergic neurons in the small intestine of this animal model.

Giant pyramidal neurons of the primary motor cortex express vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), a known marker of cortical interneurons

Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) is known to be present in a subclass of cortical interneurons. Here, using three different antibodies, we demonstrate that VIP is also present in the giant layer 5 pyramidal (Betz) neurons which are characteristic of the limb and axial representations of the marmoset primary motor cortex (cytoarchitectural area 4ab). No VIP staining was observed in smaller layer 5 pyramidal cells present in the primary motor facial representation (cytoarchitectural area 4c), or in the premotor cortex (e.g. the caudal subdivision of the dorsal premotor cortex, A6DC), indicating the selective expression of VIP in Betz cells. VIP in Betz cells was colocalized with neuronal specific marker (NeuN) and a calcium-binding protein parvalbumin (PV). PV also intensely labelled axon terminals surrounding Betz cell somata. VIP-positive interneurons were more abundant in the superficial cortical layers and constituted about 5–7% of total cortical neurons, with the highest density observed in area 4c. Our results demonstrate the expression of VIP in the largest excitatory neurons of the primate cortex, which may offer new functional insights into the role of VIP in the brain, and provide opportunities for genetic manipulation of Betz cells.

Tyrosine hydroxylase expression and neuronal loss in the male and female adolescent ventral tegmental area

Adolescence is a critical period of development characterized by numerous behavioral and neuroanatomical changes. While studies of adolescent neurodevelopment typically compare adolescent age groups with young adults, there are fewer studies that assess developmental trajectories within the adolescent period. In the adolescent prefrontal cortex, some maturational changes take place linearly/chronologically, while others are associated specifically with pubertal onset. The adolescent ventral tegmental area (VTA), a primary source of forebrain dopamine, is relatively understudied during this period. In the present study, dopamine neuron number, total neuron number and tyrosine hydroxylase expression are assessed in the male and female rat VTA at three timepoints: postnatal day(P) 30 (pre-pubertal), P40 (post-pubertal for females, pre-pubertal for males) and P60 (post-pubertal). There was a non-significant trend for a reduction in total VTA neuron number between P30 and P60, but there was a significant reduction in dopamine neuron number across age. The expression of tyrosine hydroxylase did not change with age. However, in a second cohort of subjects, brain tissue was collected pre-pubertal, from recently post-pubertal males and females, and young adults. In this cohort, there was a sex-specific and transient decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase expression in recently post-pubertal males. These results suggest a selective pruning of VTA dopamine cells between early adolescence and young adulthood, while pubertal onset may coincide with a rapid maturation of these neurons. These findings may have implications for psychiatric disorders associated with dopamine dysfunction that tend to manifest during adolescence.

Cytoarchitectonic gradients of laminar degeneration in behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia.

Behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) is a clinical syndrome primarily caused by either tau (bvFTD-tau) or TDP-43 (bvFTD-TDP) proteinopathies. We previously found lower cortical layers and dorsolateral regions accumulate greater tau than TDP-43 pathology; however, patterns of laminar neurodegeneration across diverse cytoarchitecture in bvFTD is understudied. We hypothesized that bvFTD-tau and bvFTD-TDP have distinct laminar distributions of pyramidal neurodegeneration along cortical gradients, a topologic order of cytoarchitectonic subregions based on increasing pyramidal density and laminar differentiation. Here, we tested this hypothesis in a frontal cortical gradient consisting of five cytoarchitectonic types (i.e., periallocortex, agranular mesocortex, dysgranular mesocortex, eulaminate-I isocortex, eulaminate-II isocortex) spanning anterior cingulate, paracingulate, orbitofrontal, and mid-frontal gyri in bvFTD-tau (n=27), bvFTD-TDP (n=47), and healthy controls (HC; n=32). We immunostained all tissue for total neurons (NeuN; neuronal-nuclear protein) and pyramidal neurons (SMI32; non-phosphorylated neurofilament) and digitally quantified NeuN-immunoreactivity (ir) and SMI32-ir in supragranular II-III, infragranular V-VI, and all I-VI layers in each cytoarchitectonic type. We used linear mixed-effects models adjusted for demographic and biologic variables to compare SMI32-ir between groups and examine relationships with the cortical gradient, long-range pathways, and clinical symptoms. We found regional and laminar distributions of SMI32-ir expected for HC, validating our measures within the cortical gradient framework. While SMI32-ir loss was relatively uniform along the cortical gradient in bvFTD-TDP, SMI32-ir progressively decreased along the cortical gradient of bvFTD-tau and included greater SMI32-ir loss in supragranular eulaminate-II isocortex in bvFTD-tau versus bvFTD-TDP (p=0.039). Using a ratio of SMI32-ir to model known long-range connectivity between infragranular mesocortex and supragranular isocortex, we found a larger laminar ratio in bvFTD-tau versus bvFTD-TDP (p=0.019), suggesting select long-projecting pathways may contribute to isocortical-predominant degeneration in bvFTD-tau. In cytoarchitectonic types with the highest NeuN-ir, we found lower SMI32-ir in bvFTD-tau versus bvFTD-TDP (p=0.047), suggesting pyramidal neurodegeneration may occur earlier in bvFTD-tau. Lastly, we found that reduced SMI32-ir related to behavioral severity and frontal-mediated letter fluency, not temporal-mediated confrontation naming, demonstrating the clinical relevance and specificity of frontal pyramidal neurodegeneration to bvFTD-related symptoms. Our data suggest loss of neurofilament-rich pyramidal neurons is a clinically relevant feature of bvFTD that selectively worsens along a frontal cortical gradient in bvFTD-tau, not bvFTD-TDP. Therefore, tau-mediated degeneration may preferentially involve pyramidal-rich layers that connect more distant cytoarchitectonic types. Moreover, the hierarchical arrangement of cytoarchitecture along cortical gradients may be an important neuroanatomical framework for identifying which types of cells and pathways are differentially involved between proteinopathies.

Neuroprotection mediated by prolactin against streptozotocin injury in brain rat areas

Prolactin has been recognized as neuroprotective hormone against various types of neuronal damage. This study was aimed to determine if prolactin protects against streptozotocin injury. A series of experiments were performed to determine neuronal survival by counting total neurons in medial hippocampus cortex and cerebellum. Astrogliosis was determined by immunofluorescence assays using GFAP, and behavioral improvement by prolactin after neuronal damage was determined by open-field and light–dark box tests. Results demonstrated that prolactin induced significant neuronal survival in both the hippocampus and cortex, but not in the cerebellum. No increase in astrogliosis was identified, but a significant reduction in anxiety levels was observed. Overall data indicate that prolactin may protect against a complex form of cell damage including oxidant stress and metabolic disruption by streptozotocin. Prolactin may be helpful strategy in the treatment of neuronal damage in neurological diseases.

SH2B1 Defends Against Energy Imbalance, Obesity, and Metabolic Disease via a Paraventricular Hypothalamus→Dorsal Raphe Nucleus Neurocircuit.

SH2B1 mutations are associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) in humans. Global deletion of Sh2b1 results in severe obesity, type 2 diabetes, and MASLD in mice. Neuron-specific restoration of SH2B1 rescues the obesity phenotype of Sh2b1-null mice, indicating that the brain is a main SH2B1 target. However, SH2B1 neurocircuits remain elusive. SH2B1-expressing neurons in the paraventricular hypothalamus (PVHSH2B1) and a PVHSH2B1→dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) neurocircuit are identified here. PVHSH2B1 axons monosynaptically innervate DRN neurons. Optogenetic stimulation of PVHSH2B1 axonal fibers in the DRN suppresses food intake. Chronic inhibition of PVHSH2B1 neurons causes obesity. In male and female mice, either embryonic-onset or adult-onset deletion of Sh2b1 in PVH neurons causes energy imbalance, obesity, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, and MASLD. Ablation of Sh2b1 in the DRN-projecting PVHSH2B1 subpopulation also causes energy imbalance, obesity, and metabolic disorders. Conversely, SH2B1 overexpression in either total or DRN-projecting PVHSH2B1 neurons protects against diet-induced obesity. SH2B1 binds to TrkB and enhances brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling. Ablation of Sh2b1 in PVHSH2B1 neurons induces BDNF resistance in the PVH, contributing to obesity. In conclusion, these results unveil a previously unrecognized PVHSH2B1→DRN neurocircuit through which SH2B1 defends against obesity by enhancing BDNF/TrkB signaling.

Enhanced electrophysiological activity and neurotoxicity screening of environmental chemicals using 3D neurons from human neural precursor cells purified with PSA-NCAM

The assessment of neurotoxicity for environmental chemicals is of utmost importance in ensuring public health and environmental safety. Multielectrode array (MEA) technology has emerged as a powerful tool for assessing disturbances in the electrophysiological activity. Although human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-derived neurons have been used in MEA for neurotoxicity screening, obtaining a substantial and sufficiently active population of neurons from hESCs remains challenging. In this study, we successfully differentiated neurons from a large population of human neuronal precursor cells (hNPC) purified using a polysialylated neural cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM), referred to as hNPCPSA-NCAM+. The functional characterization demonstrated that hNPCPSA-NCAM+-derived neurons improve functionality by enhancing electrophysiological activity compared to total hNPC-derived neurons. Furthermore, three-dimensional (3D) neurons derived from hNPCPSA-NCAM+ exhibited reduced maturation time and enhanced electrophysiological activity on MEA. We employed subdivided population analysis of active mean firing rate (MFR) based on electrophysiological intensity to characterize the electrophysiological properties of hNPCPSA-NCAM+-3D neurons. Based on electrophysiological activity including MFR and burst parameters, we evaluated the sensitivity of hNPCPSA-NCAM+-3D neurons on MEA to screen both inhibitory and excitatory neuroactive environmental chemicals. Intriguingly, electrophysiologically active hNPCPSA-NCAM+-3D neurons demonstrated good sensitivity to evaluate neuroactive chemicals, particularly in discriminating excitatory chemicals. Our findings highlight the effectiveness of MEA approaches using hNPCPSA-NCAM+-3D neurons in the assessment of neurotoxicity associated with environmental chemicals. Furthermore, we emphasize the importance of selecting appropriate signal intensity thresholds to enhance neurotoxicity prediction and screening of environmental chemicals.

Regional and Sex Differences in the Mouse Colonic Innervation Assessed Using a Computerized Quantitative Approach in Three-dimension of the Enteric Nervous System (ENS)

The ENS consists of the submucosal and myenteric plexus (SMP, MP) and controls a variety of gut functions. The quantitative analysis of innervation in the ENS is still a challenge because the ENS forms a mesh-like three-dimensional (3D) network embedded in the gut wall. We developed a computerized approach to perform direct, objective and automatic measurements of innervation in 3D structures of the mouse colonic ENS. The whole mounts of SMP and MP were prepared along the proximal, transverse and distal colon (pC, tC, dC) collected from 8 naïve mice (C57BL/6J, 6 weeks, 4 of each sex). Each 3D image of SMP or MP was reconstructed from Z-stack confocal images with 50-100 or 30-50 optical sections in the frame 1415×1415 or 708×708 μm and 1 μm apart. The Hu C/D, peripheral form of choline acetyltransferase (pChAT), nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and calcitonin gene-related protein (CGRP) immunoreactive (ir) enteric neurons or fibers were digitally traced and automatically measured with Imaris 9.7 for neuroscientists. The co-localization of pChAT and nNOS was determined with ImarisColoc tool. The densities of neurons and nerve fibers, co-localization of pChAT and nNOS were calculated from 6-8 of 3D images/marker/plexus/segment/mouse (total 2304 3D images) and expressed as the percentage of each type of neurons in total neurons, the volume of each type of nerve fibers in the volume of SMP and MP and co-labeled neurons in each type of neurons. The results demonstrate significant differences in the numbers of two major neuronal populations, their co-localization and densities of three representative nerve fibers among three colonic segments, between two plexuses and sexes. 1. pChAT- and nNOS-ir neurons in the MP: the density of pChAT-ir neurons was 1.4- and 2.1-fold lower in the pC than in the tC and dC (p<0.05, p<0.001), and 1.6- and 4.0-fold higher than that of nNOS-ir neurons in the tC and dC (p<0.001, p<0.001), respectively. In contrast, the density of nNOS-ir neurons was 1.4- or 2.3-fold higher in the pC or tC than dC (p<0.001, p<0.01). 2. Co-localization of pChAT and nNOS in the MP: Co-labeled neurons in the nNOS-ir neurons were 1.4- or 1.5-fold lower in the pC or tC than dC (p<0.05, p<0.05). 3. Nerve fibers: The density of VIP-ir fibers in the SMP was 2.4- and 1.8-fold higher in the pC than tC and dC (p<0.001, p<0.001) while 3.0- and 2.4-fold lower than in the MP in both tC and dC (p<0.001, 0.001). TH-ir fibers in the SMP were 1.6-fold lower in both tC or dC than pC (p<0.01, p<0.01), 1.6-, 2.2- and 1.4-fold lower than MP in the pC, tC and dC (p<0.001, p<0.001, p<0.05). In the MP, they were 1.8- and 1.6-fold lower in the dC than in pC and tC (p<0.001, p<0.001). CGRP-ir fibers did not show significant difference between two plexuses among three segments. 4. Sex differences: The co-labeled neurons in the pChAT-ir neurons were 2.2-, 2.7- and 2.2-fold more in the males than females in three segments (p<0.001, p<001, p<0.001) while those in the nNOS-ir neurons were 1.9-fold more in the males than females only in the dC (p<0.05). VIP-ir fibers in the dC-MP were 1.2-fold higher in the males than females (p<0.05). These data and the novel approach developed in this study will contribute to further assessments of the structure-function relationships and pathological alterations in the colon with mouse models. Supported by NIH/SPARC 1OT2OD024899-01. This is the full abstract presented at the American Physiology Summit 2024 meeting and is only available in HTML format. There are no additional versions or additional content available for this abstract. Physiology was not involved in the peer review process.

Phenotyping of light-activated neurons in the mouse SCN based on the expression of FOS and EGR1.

Light-sensitive neurons are located in the ventral and central core of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), whereas stably oscillating clock neurons are found mainly in the dorsal shell. Signals between the SCN core and shell are believed to play an important role in light entrainment. Core neurons express vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), and Neuroglobin (Ngb), whereas the shell neurons express vasopressin (AVP), prokineticin 2, and the VIP type 2 (VPAC2) receptor. In rodents, light has a phase-shifting capacity at night, which induces rapid and transient expression of the EGR1 and FOS in the SCN. Methods: The present study used immunohistochemical staining of FOS, EGR1, and phenotypical markers of SCN neurons (VIP, AVP, Ngb) to identify subtypes/populations of light-responsive neurons at early night. Results: Double immunohistochemistry and cell counting were used to evaluate the number of SCN neurons expressing FOS and EGR1 in the SCN. The number of neurons expressing either EGR1 or FOS was higher than the total number of neurons co-storing EGR1 and FOS. Of the total number of light-responsive cells, 42% expressed only EGR1, 43% expressed only FOS, and 15% expressed both EGR1 and FOS. Light-responsive VIP neurons represented only 31% of all VIP neurons, and EGR1 represents the largest group of light-responsive VIP neurons (18%). VIP neurons expressing only FOS represented 1% of the total light-responsive VIP neurons. 81% of the Ngb neurons in the mouse SCN were light-responsive, and of these neurons expressing only EGR1 after light stimulation represented 44%, whereas 24% expressed FOS. Although most light-responsive neurons are found in the core of the SCN, 29% of the AVP neurons in the shell were light-responsive, of which 8% expressed EGR1, 10% expressed FOS, and 11% co-expressed both EGR1 and FOS after light stimulation. Discussion: Our analysis revealed cell-specific differences in light responsiveness between different peptidergic and Ngb-expressing neurons in different compartments of the mouse SCN, indicating that light activates diverse neuronal networks in the SCN, some of which participate in photoentrainment.

Different ways of evolving tool-using brains in teleosts and amniotes

In mammals and birds, tool-using species are characterized by their relatively large telencephalon containing a higher proportion of total brain neurons compared to other species. Some teleost species in the wrasse family have evolved tool-using abilities. In this study, we compared the brains of tool-using wrasses with various teleost species. We show that in the tool-using wrasses, the telencephalon and the ventral part of the forebrain and midbrain are significantly enlarged compared to other teleost species but do not contain a larger proportion of cells. Instead, this size difference is due to large fiber tracts connecting the dorsal part of the telencephalon (pallium) to the inferior lobe, a ventral mesencephalic structure absent in amniotes. The high degree of connectivity between these structures in tool-using wrasses suggests that the inferior lobe could contribute to higher-order cognitive functions. We conclude that the evolution of non-telencephalic structures might have been key in the emergence of these cognitive functions in teleosts.

Cluster Neuronal Firing Induced by Uniform Pulses of High-Frequency Stimulation on Axons in Rat Hippocampus.

High-frequency stimulation (HFS) of electrical pulse sequences has been used in various neuromodulation techniques to treat certain disorders. Here, we test the hypothesis that HFS sequences with purely periodic pulses could directly generate non-uniform firing in directly stimulated neurons. In vivo experiments were conducted in the rat hippocampal CA1 region. A stimulation electrode was placed on the alveus fibers, and a recording electrode array was inserted into the CA1 region upstream of the stimulation site. Antidromic-HFS (A-HFS) of 100 Hz pulses was applied to the alveus to antidromically activate the soma of pyramidal neurons around the recording site. By minimizing the interferences of population spikes, the evoked unit spikes of individual pyramidal neurons were obtained during A-HFS. Additionally, a computational model of pyramidal neuron was used to simulate the neuronal responses to A-HFS, revealing possible mechanisms underlying the different firing patterns. Of the total 54 pyramidal neurons recorded during 2-min 100 Hz A-HFS, 38 (70%) neurons fired in a cluster pattern with alternating periods of intensive spikes and silence. The remaining 16 (30%) neurons fired in a non-cluster pattern with regular spikes. Modeling simulations showed that under the situation of HFS-induced intermittent block, conduction failure and generation failure of action potentials along the axons resulted in the cluster and non-cluster firing. Sustained axonal A-HFS with periodic pulses can induce non-uniform firing in directly stimulated neurons. This finding provides new evidence for the nonlinear dynamics of neuronal firing, even under uniform stimulation.

Conditional random <i>k</i> satisfiability modeling for <i>k</i> = 1, 2 (CRAN2SAT) with non-monotonic Smish activation function in discrete Hopfield neural network

<abstract> <p>The current development of logic satisfiability in discrete Hopfield neural networks (DHNN)has been segregated into systematic logic and non-systematic logic. Most of the research tends to improve non-systematic logical rules to various extents, such as introducing the ratio of a negative literal and a flexible hybrid logical structure that combines systematic and non-systematic structures. However, the existing non-systematic logical rule exhibited a drawback concerning the impact of negative literal within the logical structure. Therefore, this paper presented a novel class of non-systematic logic called conditional random <italic>k</italic> satisfiability for <italic>k</italic> = 1, 2 while intentionally disregarding both positive literals in second-order clauses. The proposed logic was embedded into the discrete Hopfield neural network with the ultimate goal of minimizing the cost function. Moreover, a novel non-monotonic Smish activation function has been introduced with the aim of enhancing the quality of the final neuronal state. The performance of the proposed logic with new activation function was compared with other state of the art logical rules in conjunction with five different types of activation functions. Based on the findings, the proposed logic has obtained a lower learning error, with the highest total neuron variation <italic>TV</italic> = 857 and lowest average of Jaccard index, <italic>JSI</italic> = 0.5802. On top of that, the Smish activation function highlights its capability in the DHNN based on the result ratio of improvement <italic>Zm</italic> and <italic>TV</italic>. The ratio of improvement for Smish is consistently the highest throughout all the types of activation function, showing that Smish outperforms other types of activation functions in terms of <italic>Zm</italic> and <italic>TV.</italic> This new development of logical rule with the non-monotonic Smish activation function presents an alternative strategy to the logic mining technique. This finding will be of particular interest especially to the research areas of artificial neural network, logic satisfiability in DHNN and activation function.</p> </abstract>

Comparison of wholemount dissection methods for neuronal subtype marker expression in the mouse myenteric plexus.

Accurately reporting the identity and representation of enteric nervous system (ENS) neuronal subtypes along the length of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is critical to advancing our understanding of ENS control of GI function. Reports of varying proportions of subtype marker expression have employed different dissection techniques to achieve wholemount muscularis preparations of myenteric plexus. In this study, we asked whether differences in GI dissection methods could introduce variability into the quantification of marker expression. We compared three commonly used methods of ENS wholemount dissection: two flat-sheet preparations that differed in the order of microdissection and fixation and a third rod-mounted peeling technique. We also tested a reversed orientation variation of flat-sheet peeling, two step-by-step variations of the rod peeling technique, and whole-gut fixation as a tube. We assessed marker expression using immunohistochemistry, genetic reporter lines, confocal microscopy, and automated image analysis. We found no significant differences between the two flat-sheet preparation methods in the expression of calretinin or neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) as a proportion of total neurons in ileum myenteric plexus. However, the rod-mounted peeling method resulted in decreased proportion of neurons labeled for both calretinin and nNOS. This method also resulted in decreased transgenic reporter fluorescent protein (tdTomato) for substance P in distal colon and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) in both ileum and distal colon. These results suggest that labeling among some markers, both native protein and transgenic fluorescent reporters, is decreased by the rod-mounted mechanical method of peeling. The step-by-step variations of this method point to mechanical manipulation of the tissue as the likely cause of decreased labeling. Our study thereby demonstrates a critical variability in wholemount muscularis dissection methods.

Cognitive Aging and the Primate Basal Forebrain Revisited: Disproportionate GABAergic Vulnerability Revealed.

Basal forebrain (BF) projections to the hippocampus and cortex are anatomically positioned to influence a broad range of cognitive capacities that are known to decline in normal aging, including executive function and memory. Although a long history of research on neurocognitive aging has focused on the role of the cholinergic basal forebrain system, intermingled GABAergic cells are numerically as prominent and well positioned to regulate the activity of their cortical projection targets, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. The effects of aging on noncholinergic BF neurons in primates, however, are largely unknown. In this study, we conducted quantitative morphometric analyses in brains from young adult (6 females, 2 males) and aged (11 females, 5 males) rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) that displayed significant impairment on standard tests that require the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Cholinergic (ChAT+) and GABAergic (GAD67+) neurons were quantified through the full rostrocaudal extent of the BF. Total BF immunopositive neuron number (ChAT+ plus GAD67+) was significantly lower in aged monkeys compared with young, largely because of fewer GAD67+ cells. Additionally, GAD67+ neuron volume was greater selectively in aged monkeys without cognitive impairment compared with young monkeys. These findings indicate that the GABAergic component of the primate BF is disproportionally vulnerable to aging, implying a loss of inhibitory drive to cortical circuitry. Moreover, adaptive reorganization of the GABAergic circuitry may contribute to successful neurocognitive outcomes.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT A long history of research has confirmed the role of the basal forebrain in cognitive aging. The majority of that work has focused on BF cholinergic neurons that innervate the cortical mantle. Codistributed BF GABAergic populations are also well positioned to influence cognitive function, yet little is known about this prominent neuronal population in the aged brain. In this unprecedented quantitative comparison of both cholinergic and GABAergic BF neurons in young and aged rhesus macaques, we found that neuron number is significantly reduced in the aged BF compared with young, and that this reduction is disproportionately because of a loss of GABAergic neurons. Together, our findings encourage a new perspective on the functional organization of the primate BF in neurocognitive aging.

Dopaminergic Dependency of Cholinergic Pallidal Neurons.

We employed the whole-cell patch-clamp method and ChAT-Cre mice to study the electrophysiological attributes of cholinergic neurons in the external globus pallidus. Most neurons were inactive, although approximately 20% displayed spontaneous firing, including burst firing. The resting membrane potential, the whole neuron input resistance, the membrane time constant and the total neuron membrane capacitance were also characterized. The current-voltage relationship showed time-independent inward rectification without a "sag". Firing induced by current injections had a brief initial fast adaptation followed by tonic firing with minimal accommodation. Intensity-frequency plots exhibited maximal average firing rates of about 10Hz. These traits are similar to those of some cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain. Also, we examined their dopamine sensitivity by acutely blocking dopamine receptors. This action demonstrated that the membrane potential, excitability, and firing pattern of pallidal cholinergic neurons rely on the constitutive activity of dopamine receptors, primarily D2-class receptors. The blockade of these receptors induced a resting membrane potential hyperpolarization, a decrease in firing for the same stimulus, the disappearance of fast adaptation, and the emergence of a depolarization block. This shift in physiological characteristics was evident even when the hyperpolarization was corrected with D.C. current. Neither the currents that generate the action potentials nor those from synaptic inputs were responsible. Instead, our findings suggest, that subthreshold slow ion currents, that require further investigation, are the target of this novel dopaminergic signaling.

Involvement of Oxidative Stress and Nutrition in the Anatomy of Orofacial Pain.

Pain is a very important problem of our existence, and the attempt to understand it is one the oldest challenges in the history of medicine. In this review, we summarize what has been known about pain, its pathophysiology, and neuronal transmission. We focus on orofacial pain and its classification and features, knowing that is sometimes purely subjective and not well defined. We consider the physiology of orofacial pain, evaluating the findings on the main neurotransmitters; in particular, we describe the roles of glutamate as approximately 30-80% of total peripheric neurons associated with the trigeminal ganglia are glutamatergic. Moreover, we describe the important role of oxidative stress and its association with inflammation in the etiogenesis and modulation of pain in orofacial regions. We also explore the warning and protective function of orofacial pain and the possible action of antioxidant molecules, such as melatonin, and the potential influence of nutrition and diet on its pathophysiology. Hopefully, this will provide a solid background for future studies that would allow better treatment of noxious stimuli and for opening new avenues in the management of pain.

Long-term and low dose oral malathion exposure causes morphophysiological changes in the colon of rats

BackgroundMalathion (MAL) is an organophosphate insecticide that inhibits cholinesterases, used to control pests in agriculture and to combat mosquitoes that transmit various arboviruses. As acetylcholine is one of the major neurotransmitters of the enteric nervous system (ENS), humans exposed to MAL by ingestion of contaminated food and water can develop symptoms due disfunction of the gastrointestinal tract. Although the deleterious effects after exposure to high doses are recognized, little is known about the long-term and low-dose effects of this pesticide on the structure and motility of the colon. Aimsto evaluate the effects of prolonged oral exposure to low levels of MAL on the wall structure and colonic motility parameters of young rats. Main methodsThe animals were divided into three groups: control, and groups that received 10 or 50 mg/kg of MAL via gavage for 40 days. The colon was collected for histological analysis and analysis of the ENS through the evaluation of total neurons and subpopulations of the myenteric and submucosal plexuses. Cholinesterase activity and functional analyzes of the colon were evaluated. Key findingsMAL treatments (10 and 50 mg/Kg) reduced the butyrylcholinesterase activity, and caused enlargement of faecal pellets, atrophy of muscle layers and several changes in neurons of both myenteric and submucosal plexi. Considering colonic contraction, MAL (50 mg/Kg) increased the number of retrograde colonic migratory motor complexes. SignificanceThe long-term exposure to low doses of MAL affects colonic morphophysiology, which highlights the need to intensify control and care in the use of this pesticide.