Total Mass Flux Research Articles

A Fully Coupled Model for the Simulation of Gas Flow in Multiscale Shale Reservoirs Combining Multiple Effects

Gas flow mechanisms in shale reservoirs with multiscale pores and fractures are extremely complex. In this study, a dual fracture framework model was adopted to describe gas flow in multiscale shale reservoirs. Gas flow through a shale reservoir occurs through both the shale matrix and hydraulic fractures. This study considered bulk phase and adsorbed gas flow in the shale matrix. Next, a series of partial theories were combined to derive a fully coupled model simulating gas flow in multiscale shale reservoirs: (1) fractal theory was adopted to obtain the pore distribution within shale reservoirs; (2) mechanical equilibrium equations were used to investigate the stress-sensitivity of permeability and porosity; and (3) a Langmuir adsorption model was applied to describe the effects of gas adsorption/desorption. The proposed model was validated using traditional models as well as field data on gas production from Marcellus Shale, and was subsequently applied to study variations of mass flux in various flow regimes with respect to reservoir pressure. We found that mass flux in the slip flow regime decreased at first and then increased with decreasing reservoir pressure, while in the continuum regime, Knudsen diffusion and surface diffusion the mass flux decreased with decreasing reservoir pressure. Stress-sensitivity has a significant impact on bulk phase gas flow, while adsorption/desorption influence both the bulk phase gas flow and adsorbed gas flow. At high pressures, the impact of stress-sensitivity on total gas mass flux is greater than that of adsorption/desorption, while the reverse was true for low pressures. The proposed model shows promising applications for analyzing various gas flow regimes in multiscale pores/fractures, and accurately evaluating in situ apparent permeability.

Sinking Particle Flux in the Subtropical Oligotrophic Northwestern Pacific from a Short-term Sediment Trap Experiment

Time-series sediment traps were deployed in the subtropical oligotrophic northwestern Pacific (SONP) at three depths from August to September 2015 to better understand vertical flux of sinking particles. Sinking particles were collected at 5-day intervals over the sediment trap deployment period. The average total mass flux at water depths of 400 m, 690 m, and 1,710 m was 9.1, 4.4, and 4.1 mg m-2day-1, respectively. CaCO3 materials constituted 50 to 70% of sinking particles while in comparison particulate organic carbon (POC) constituted up to 20%. A synchronous variation of total mass flux was observed at the three depths, indicating that calcite-dominated particles sank from 400 to 1,710 m within a 5-day period. POC flux at these water depths was 2.4, 0.38, and 0.31 mg m-2day-1, respectively. Our results indicate low transfer efficiencies of 16% from 400 to 690 m and 13% for the 400 to 1,710 m depth range. The estimated transfer efficiencies were significantly lower than those observed at the K2 station in the northwest Pacific subarctic gyre, presumably because of a prevalence of pico-cyanobacteria in the SONP. Because cyanobacteria have a semi-permeable proteinaceous shell, they are more readily remineralized by bacteria than are siliceous phytoplankton in the northwest Pacific subarctic gyre. Continued surface water warming and expansion of the SONP will likely have a profound impact on ocean acidification in the northwest Pacific, possibly affecting the transfer efficiency of sinking POC to the deep-sea.

Comparative study on the hydrodynamics and mixing characteristics of a new-type particle mixer

The characteristics of particle flow and mixing have a considerable influence on mass and heat transfer, as well as product quality. In order to further enhance the particle mixing in an internally circulating fluidized bed (ICFB), especially along the radial direction, four slots were opened on the draft tube of an ICFB mixer. Hydrodynamic characteristics were investigated by using a multi-scale computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model incorporating the EMMS drag. The prediction in terms of cross-sectionally averaged solid holdup and particle velocity were compared to experimental data for validation. Compared with a traditional ICFB mixer, the new mixer with four slots opening on the draft tube presents strong radial particle flow through the slots, and thereby provides better mixing performance. It is found that nearly 25.4% to 29.7% of gas in the draft tube bypasses and flows through the slots into the annulus. With increase in the superficial gas velocity in the draft tube from 0.3 m/s to 0.45 m/s, the total particle circulation mass flux in the new ICFB mixer increases from 4.87 kg/s to 10.86 kg/s. The mixing index reaches about 0.98 in the new ICFB mixer.

Spatial and vertical variations of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in the Bohai and Yellow Seas: Bridging the gap between riverine sources and marine sinks

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are being increasingly reported as emerging contaminants in riverine and marine settings. This study investigated the contamination level and spatial distribution of 17 PFAAs within the depth profile of the Bohai and Yellow Seas using newly detected sampling data from 49 sites (June 29 to July 14, 2016). Moreover, the riverine flux of 11 selected PFAAs in 33 rivers draining into the Bohai and Yellow Seas was estimated from previous studies (2002–2014) in order to establish the relationship between riverine sources and marine sinks. The results showed that the Bohai and Yellow Seas were commonly contaminated with PFAAs: total concentrations of PFAAs in the surface, middle, and bottom zones ranged from 4.55 to 556 ng L−1, 4.61–575 ng L−1, and 4.94–572 ng L−1, respectively. The predominant compounds were PFOA (0.55–449 ng L−1), PFBA (<LOQ-34.5 ng L−1), and PFPeA (<LOQ-54.3 ng L−1), accounting for 10.1–87.0%, 5.2–59.5%, and 0.6–68.6% of the total PFAAs, respectively. In general, the ∑PFAA concentrations showed a slightly decreasing trend with sampling depth. Contamination was particularly severe in Laizhou Bay, fed by the Xiaoqing River and an industrial park known for PFAA production. The total riverine PFAA mass flux into the Bohai and Yellow Seas was estimated to be 72.2 t y−1, of which 94.8% was carried by the Yangtze and Xiaoqing Rivers. As the concentration of short-chain PFAAs begins to rise in seawater, further studies on the occurrence and fate of short-chain PFAAs with special focus on effective control measures would be very timely, particularly in the Xiaoqing River and Laizhou Bay.

Oxisolic processes and geochemical constraints on duration of weathering for Neoproterozoic Baltic paleosol

A transient greenhouse warming event during the late Neoproterozoic has been invoked to explain the incongruence of cooler temperatures and intense weathering at high latitudes. We explore this further by examining three deep weathering profiles of the Neoproterozoic Baltic paleosol (600–560 Ma). These profiles have an Oxisolic horizon dominated by quartz, kaolinite, phlogopite/vermiculite, hematite and goethite. Mass-balance calculations (assuming immobile Al2O3) for the newly characterized Erra profile studied here showed loss of 25–50% SiO2 and MgO, complete loss of CaO and Na2O, 25–50% loss of K2O, and 25–100% gain in Fe2O3 in the upper Oxisolic horizon. pH was estimated as moderately acid to very acidic (4.5–6) during weathering using a new paleo-pH proxy. MAP (1500–1600 mm yr−1: CIA-K) and MAT (13–15(+) °C: PPM1.0) were also estimated using bulk geochemical proxies. Calculations for pCO2 follow an earlier thermodynamic method with evaluation of total mass flux for CaO, MgO, Na2O, and K2OCALC (corrected for K metasomatism) during weathering of each protolith material. When considering a range of acceptable values of paleoatmospheric pCO2 based on earlier studies, a minimum of 1.88 × 105 and a maximum of 1.02 × 106 yr weathering duration is indicated, consistent with previous interpretations that the Baltic paleosol is a deep paleo-Oxisol. This long weathering duration estimate does not require a “transient Neoproterozoic greenhouse event” to explain the depth (to 30 m) and intensity of weathering, especially given newer paleolatitudinal reconstructions.

Using rare earth elements to trace wind-driven dispersion of sediments from a point source

Abstract The entrainment and movement of aeolian sediments is determined by the direction and intensity of erosive winds. Although erosive winds may blow from all directions, in most regions there is a predominant direction. Dust emission causes the removal preferentially of soil nutrients and contaminants which may be transported tens to even thousands of kilometers from the source and deposited into other ecosystems. It would be beneficial to understand spatially and temporally how the soil source may be degraded and depositional zones enriched. A stable chemical tracer not found in the soil but applied to the surface of all particles in the surface soil would facilitate this endeavor. This study examined whether solution-applied rare earth elements (REEs) could be used to trace aeolian sediment movement from a point source through space and time at the field scale. We applied erbium nitrate solution to a 5 m2 area in the center of a 100 m diameter field 7854 m2 on the Southern High Plains of Texas. The solution application resulted in a soil-borne concentration three orders of magnitude greater than natively found in the field soil. We installed BSNE sampler masts in circular configurations and collected the trapped sediment weekly. We found that REE-tagged sediment was blown into every sampler mast during the course of the study but that there was a predominant direction of transport during the spring. This preliminary investigation suggests that the REEs provide a viable and incisive technique to study spatial and temporal variation of aeolian sediment movement from specific sources to identifiable locations of deposition or locations through which the sediments were transported as horizontal mass flux and the relative contribution of the specific source to the total mass flux.

Great expectations: Flow restoration and sediment transport in the Waimea River, Kaua'i

Conventional and novel observations made in the Waimea River basin between 1960 and 1995 permit the total riverine mass flux to be estimated and the influence that flow restoration will have on sediment dynamics in the river's lower reaches to be assessed. Flows between the threshold for sediment transport (~6.0 m3 s−1) and the most effective flow (80.7 m3 s−1) recur annually and transport ~60% of the Waimea River's suspended sediment load. Discharges of this magnitude essentially were unaffected by plantation era agricultural diversions of 2.3 ± 0.7 m3 s−1. The modern-day mass flux from the Waimea River basin is 155 ± 38 t km−2 y−1, and comparison with an independent cosmogenic nuclide-based estimate implies that it has remained at about this level for the past 10 ky. Previous work indicated that: (i) most of the sand the Waimea River transports to the coast is derived from steep, rapidly eroding, sparsely vegetated, bedrock-dominated hillslopes; and (ii) the sediment transport regime of the Waimea River is supply-limited at very high discharges (recurrence interval > 2.5 years). Consequently, major floods tend to remove sand from the estuary. Climate change has caused a statewide decline in heavy rainfall, and a commensurate decline in the magnitude of peak flows in the basin's pristine, undiverted headwaters over the past 97 years. The effect this secular change in climate presently is having on streamflow was foreshadowed in the late 1970s by a naturally occurring, warm Pacific Decadal Oscillation phase reduction in the magnitude of flows with low exceedance probabilities. Additionally, the controlling base level at the river mouth has risen and been displaced seaward. Simple proportionality approximations show that, for a constant sediment supply, aggradation will occur if either the magnitude of flows with a low exceedance probability declines and/or base level rises. Thus, anthropogenic stresses on Waimea River's lower reaches are not derived from the within-basin influence agricultural diversions exert on the flow regime and will not be resolved by restoring flow to the river. These stresses primarily accrue from extrinsic factors that will continue to influence the river's hydrologic and sediment transport regimes until global, offsetting, climate-ameliorating measures are implemented.

An experimental study on the hydrodynamic performance of the water-wall system of a 600 MW supercritical CFB boiler

The temperature distribution on the backside of the water-wall tubes in the first 600 MW CFB boiler operating at 60%, 80% and 100% of the boiler Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) loads was experimentally determined and the thermal-hydrodynamic performance of water-wall system based on the mass and energy equations using the measured temperature was calculated. The results showed that the temperature of the water-wall tubes increased as the furnace height increased, showing a positive response characteristic in the water-wall system. However, the temperature of the water-wall tubes in the upper furnace was obviously declined at the places where the superheaters and cyclone separator inlet-channels were arranged. This suggests that the arrangement of the heat-transfer surfaces in the upper furnace was significantly influenced the temperature distribution of the water-wall tubes. Meanwhile, the calculated total pressure-drop and mass flux in the water-wall system increased as the boiler’s load raised, showing an energy-efficiency for the vertical once-through boiler. In addition, the metal temperature was calculated to check the working condition of the water-wall tubes and the results showed the highest metal temperature of 426.3 °C of the water-wall tubes was found at the tip of the fin at 100% MCR. This temperature was far below the permissible temperature of the metal, implying that a safe working condition of the metal at three loads was guaranteed. Nonetheless, analysis into the heat-transfer characteristics of the water in the water-wall reflects that the water temperature in the water-wall at 80% MCR load was adjacent to the boundary of the large specific-heat region, implying that heat-transfer deterioration was more likely to occur at such condition. Therefore, the metal temperature of the water-wall tubes operating at 80% MCR load requires the most concern and monitor to avoid overheating of the water-wall tubes.

Energy conversion through mass loading of escaping ionospheric ions for different Kp values

Abstract. By conserving momentum during the mixing of fast solar wind flow and slow planetary ion flow in an inelastic way, mass loading converts kinetic energy to other forms – e.g. first to electrical energy through charge separation and then to thermal energy (randomness) through gyromotion of the newly born cold ions for the comet and Mars cases. Here, we consider the Earth's exterior cusp and plasma mantle, where the ionospheric origin escaping ions with finite temperatures are loaded into the decelerated solar wind flow. Due to direct connectivity to the ionosphere through the geomagnetic field, a large part of this electrical energy is consumed to maintain field-aligned currents (FACs) toward the ionosphere, in a similar manner as the solar wind-driven ionospheric convection in the open geomagnetic field region. We show that the energy extraction rate by the mass loading of escaping ions (ΔK) is sufficient to explain the cusp FACs, and that ΔK depends only on the solar wind velocity accessing the mass-loading region (usw) and the total mass flux of the escaping ions into this region (mloadFload), as ΔK ∼ −mloadFloadu2sw∕4. The expected distribution of the separated charges by this process also predicts the observed flowing directions of the cusp FACs for different interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) orientations if we include the deflection of the solar wind flow directions in the exterior cusp. Using empirical relations of u0 ∝ Kp + 1.2 and Fload ∝ exp(0.45Kp) for Kp = 1–7, where u0 is the solar wind velocity upstream of the bow shock, ΔK becomes a simple function of Kp as log10(ΔK) = 0.2 ⋅ Kp + 2 ⋅ log10(Kp + 1.2) + constant. The major contribution of this nearly linear increase is the Fload term, i.e. positive feedback between the increase of ion escaping rate Fload through the increased energy consumption in the ionosphere for high Kp, and subsequent extraction of more kinetic energy ΔK from the solar wind to the current system by the increased Fload. Since Fload significantly increases for increased flux of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation, high EUV flux may significantly enhance this positive feedback. Therefore, the ion escape rate and the energy extraction by mass loading during ancient Earth, when the Sun is believed to have emitted much higher EUV flux than at present, could have been even higher than the currently available highest values based on Kp = 9. This raises a possibility that the ion escape has substantially contributed to the evolution of the Earth's atmosphere.

Particle dynamics and fluxes in canyons and open slopes of the southern Cretan margin (Eastern Mediterranean)

The Samaria and Lithinon canyons at the southern Cretan margin (Eastern Mediterranean) were studied with respect to hydrography, deep currents, particle dynamics and settling fluxes by utilizing: (a) current-meter and sediment trap records from May 2005 to May 2006; and (b) hydrographic and optical measurements along with particulate matter and particulate organic carbon concentrations (PMC and POC, respectively) in two surveys (May and October 2005). The deep currents were very weak with mean velocity ∼3–4 cm s−1 and their direction was controlled by the local bottom topography. The entire area was characterized by very low PMC and POC, depicted both by transmissometry profiles and discrete bottle data. The fluxes of downward settling particles are comparable with the fluxes measured in the broader Eastern Mediterranean and hence point to an oligotrophic environment with low atmospheric and lateral inputs. A series of relatively high total mass fluxes (>1000 mg m−2 d−1) were recorded near the head of the Samaria canyon, at the trap closest to Crete, and was attributed to: (a) high temporal lithogenic inputs (mineral calcite) transferred to the sea by a small, intermittent stream flowing through the Samaria gorge, which was activated by short rainfall events and spring snowmelt; and (b) inputs of numerous coccoliths of E. huxleyi and calcite by shallow sediment resuspension generated by wind-induced waves. Apart from this local-scale event, there was very little evidence of matter transfer through the canyons, thus, during the one-year of observations, the canyons were dormant. Because of this lack of down-canyon transport during the study period, open slopes and canyons exhibited roughly similar characteristics in terms both of particle dynamics and fluxes. However, the presence of coarse-grained sediments along the canyon axes point to episodic canyon activity, occurring at unknown time scales and periodicity.

Shelter effect efficacy of sand fences: A comparison of systems in a wind tunnel

Abstract The Lanzhou-Xinjiang High-speed Railway runs through an expansive wind area in the Gobi Desert and blown-sand disasters are a critical issue affecting its operation. To strengthen the blown-sand disaster shelter systems along the railway, the shelter effects of punching plate and wire mesh fences with approximately equal porosity (48%) were simulated in a wind tunnel. The experimental results showed that the wind velocity was reduced to a higher extent by the punching plate fence than by the wire mesh fence. When a single row of sand fencing was used, the wind velocity reduction coefficient (Rcz) values downwind of the punching plate fence and wire mesh fence reached 71.77% and 39.37%, respectively. When double rows of sand fencing were used, the Rcz values downwind of the punching plate and wire mesh fences were approximately 87.48% and 60.81%, respectively. For the flow field structure on the leeward side of the fencing, the deceleration zone behind the punching plate fence was more pronounced than that behind the wire mesh fence. The vortex zone was not obvious and the reverse flow disappeared for both types of fences, which indicates that the turbulent intensity was small. The sand-trapping efficiency of the wire mesh fence was close to that of punching plate fence. When a single row of sand fencing was set up, the total mass flux density decreased, on average, by 65.85% downwind of the wire mesh fence, and 75.06% downwind of the punching plate fence; when double rows of sand fencing were present, the total mass flux density decreased, on average, by 84.53% downwind of the wire mesh fence and 84.51% downwind of the punching plate fence. In addition, the wind-proof efficiency and the sand-proof efficiency of the punching plate fence and the wire mesh fence decreased with increasing wind velocities. Consequently, punching plate and wire mesh fences may effectively control the sand hazard in the expansive wind area of the Gobi Desert.

Estimating chemical composition of atmospheric deposition fluxes from mineral insoluble particles deposition collected in the western Mediterranean region

Abstract. In order to measure the mass flux of atmospheric insoluble deposition and to constrain regional models of dust simulation, a network of automatic deposition collectors (CARAGA) has been installed throughout the western Mediterranean Basin. Weekly samples of the insoluble fraction of total atmospheric deposition were collected concurrently on filters at five sites including four on western Mediterranean islands (Frioul and Corsica, France; Mallorca, Spain; and Lampedusa, Italy) and one in the southern French Alps (Le Casset), and a weighing and ignition protocol was applied in order to quantify their mineral fraction. Atmospheric deposition is both a strong source of nutrients and metals for marine ecosystems in this area. However, there are few data on trace-metal deposition in the literature, since their deposition measurement is difficult to perform. In order to obtain more information from CARAGA atmospheric deposition samples, this study aimed to test their relevance in estimating elemental fluxes in addition to total mass fluxes. The elemental chemical analysis of ashed CARAGA filter samples was based on an acid digestion and an elemental analysis by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and mass spectrometry (MS) in a clean room. The sampling and analytical protocols were tested to determine the elemental composition for mineral dust tracers (Al, Ca, K, Mg and Ti), nutrients (P and Fe) and trace metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, V and Zn) from simulated wet deposition of dust analogues and traffic soot. The relative mass loss by dissolution in wet deposition was lower than 1 % for Al and Fe, and reached 13 % for P due to its larger solubility in water. For trace metals, this loss represented less than 3 % of the total mass concentration, except for Zn, Cu and Mn for which it could reach 10 %, especially in traffic soot. The chemical contamination during analysis was negligible for all the elements except for Cd, which has a very low concentration in dust. Tests allowed us to conclude that the CARAGA samples could be used to estimate the contents of nutrients and trace metals in the limits of loss by dissolution. Chemical characterization of CARAGA deposition samples corresponding to the most intense dust deposition events recorded between 2011 and 2013 has been performed and showed elemental mass ratios consistent with the ones found in the literature for Saharan dust. However, the chemical analysis of CARAGA samples revealed the presence of some anthropogenic signatures, for instance high Zn concentrations in some samples in Lampedusa, and also pointed out that mineral dust can be mixed with anthropogenic compounds in the deposition samples collected on Frioul. Results showed that the chemical analysis of CARAGA ashed samples can be used to trace the origins of elemental deposition. The elemental atmospheric fluxes estimated from these chemical analyses of samples from the CARAGA network of weekly deposition monitoring constitute the first assessment of mass deposition fluxes of trace metals and P during intense dust deposition events at the scale of the western Mediterranean Basin. The mass fluxes strongly depend on the distance from dust sources and the most intense events, while proximity from anthropogenic sources strongly impacted the masse fluxes of Zn and Cu at Lampedusa and Frioul.

Composition and temporal variability of particle fluxes in an insular canyon of the northwestern Mediterranean Sea

Particle fluxes have been widely studied in canyons located in continental margins; conversely, particle fluxes in canyons in sediment starved margins incising small island margins have received very little attention and remain poorly understood. The Menorca Canyon is the largest canyon system in the Balearic Archipelago. Despite the high oligotrophic conditions of the Balearic Archipelago the canyon and surrounding areas host diverse communities dominated by benthic suspension feeders. Understanding the magnitude and variability of environmental factors influencing these communities thus remain crucial. In order to characterize the temporal variability of particle fluxes, analyze its geochemical and macroscopic composition and identify the main processes that modulate particle fluxes in the Menorca Canyon, one instrumented line with a sediment trap and a current meter was deployed at 430 m water depth from September 2010 to October 2012. Particle fluxes ranged between 190 and 2300 mg m2 d−1 being one of the lowest ever registered in a Mediterranean submarine canyon’s head. The CaCO3 fraction was the major constituent contrasting with the general trend observed in other Mediterranean canyons. Macroscopic constituents (fecal pellets, Posidonia oceanica detritus and pelagic and benthic foraminifera) presented a wide variability throughout the sampling period and were not significantly correlated with the total mass flux. The low magnitude of the registered fluxes and the lack of correlation with the observed environmental variables (e.g., currents, winds, wave height, chlorophyll-a biomass) suggest that there is no evident controlling mechanism. However, we could infer that resuspension processes and the presence of different hydrodynamic features (e.g., eddies, interchange of water masses) condition the magnitude and composition of particle fluxes.

Cross tropopause flux observed at sub-daily scales over the south Indian monsoon regions

The effect of deep convection on the thermal structure and dynamics of the tropical tropopause at sub daily scales is investigated using data from radiosondes launched over two sites in the Indian Monsoon region (Gadanki (13.5°N, 79.2°E) and Trivandrum (8.5°N, 76.9°E)) conducted between December 2010 and March 2014. The data from these soundings are classified into 5 convective categories based on the past, present and future cloudiness over the launching region after the radiosonde has reached tropopause altitude. They are denoted as category 1 (no convection), category 2 (convection may occur in any of the next 3h), category 3 (convection occurred prior 3h), category 4 (convection terminated within 3h of launching) and category 5 (convection persistent throughout the considered period). The anomalies from the background in temperature, relative humidity and wind speed are grouped into the aforementioned five different convective categories for both the stations. Cooling and moisture anomalies are found during the active convection (category 5). The horizontal wind speed showed a strong anomaly indicating the presence of synoptic scale features. Vertical wind obtained simultaneously from the MST radar over Gadanki clearly showed strong updraft during the active convection. The ozone profiles from ozonesondes launched during the same period are also segregated according to the above convective categories. During the active convection, high and low ozone values are found in the upper troposphere and the lower troposphere, respectively. The cross tropopause ozone mass flux and vertical wind at the tropopause and convective outflow level estimated from the ozonesonde, and MST radar/ERA-Interim data showed positive values indicating the transport of ozone between troposphere and stratosphere during deep convection. Similarly, the total mass flux crossing the cold point tropopause over Gadanki showed upward flux during the active convection. The variability of the cross tropopause mass flux is found to be higher over Gadanki compared to Trivandrum.

Persistence, mobility and bioavailability of emerging organic contaminants discharged from sewage treatment plants

Little is known about the impact of emissions of micropollutants from small and large-scale sewage treatment plants (STPs) on drinking water source areas. We investigated a populated catchment that drains into Lake Mälaren, which is the drinking water source for around 2 million people including the inhabitants of Stockholm, Sweden. To assess the persistence, mobility, bioavailability and bioaccumulation of 32 structurally diverse emerging organic contaminants, sediment, integrated passive and grab water samples were collected along the catchment of the River Fyris, Sweden. The samples were complemented with STP effluent and fish samples from one sampling event. Contaminants identified as persistent, mobile, and bioavailable were 4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethyl-1,3,4,7-tetrahydrocyclopenta[g]isochromene (galaxolide), 2,4,7,9-tetramethyl-5-decyn-4,7-diol, tris(2-chloro-ethyl) phosphate, tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate, and tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate. Galaxolide and 2,4,7,9-tetramethyl-5-decyn-4,7-diol were additionally found to be bioaccumulative, whereas n-butylbenzenesulfonamide was found to be only persistent and mobile. The total median mass flux of the persistent and mobile target analytes from Lake Ekoln into the drinking water source area of Lake Mälaren was estimated to be 27kg per year. Additionally, 10 contaminants were tentatively identified by non-target screening using NIST library searches and manual review. Two of those were confirmed by reference standards and further two contaminants, propylene glycol and rose acetate, were discharged from STPs and travelled far from the source. Attenuation of mass fluxes was highest in the summer and autumn seasons, suggesting the importance of biological degradation and photodegradation for the persistence of the studied compounds.

Approximate analytical solutions for temperature based transient mass flux and ignition time of a translucent solid at high radiant heat flux considering in-depth absorption

Most studies, employing ignition temperature as the ignition criterion, utilized surface absorption of radiant incident heat flux in analytical models when investigating the ignition mechanism of solid combustibles. However, in-depth absorption exerts its influence on ignition time significantly for translucent solid, especially at high radiant heat flux. In this work, we extend the previous researches from surface absorption to in-depth absorption to develop an approximate analytical ignition model using critical mass flux instead of critical temperature. An approximation methodology is proposed during derivation to study the in-depth absorption scenario. The comparison among this model, available experimental data of black PMMA in the literature and previous numerical simulations indicates that the proposed model provides relatively high accuracy in predicting ignition time. Furthermore, the pure surface absorption circumstance is also reexamined and compared with the classical ignition theory. The results show that surface absorption hypothesis accelerates the total mass flux, which consequently shortens the ignition time. However, in-depth absorption assumption eliminates the heat accumulation on surface and results in good prediction for ignition time at high heat flux. For in-depth absorption, the absorption coefficient affects the heat penetration depth and temperature distribution in this layer which consequently affects the thermal degradation reaction rate, mass flux and finally ignition time. Meanwhile, the ignition time considering both surface and in-depth absorption is discussed, and the relationship with pure surface and in-depth absorption conditions is obtained.

Comparative study of shale-gas production using single- and dual-continuum approaches

In this paper, we explore the possibility of specifying the ideal hypothetical positions of matrices blocks and fractures in fractured porous media as a single-continuum reservoir model in a way that mimics the dual-porosity dual-permeability (DPDP) configuration. In order to get an ideal mimic, we use the typical configuration and geometrical hypotheses of the DPDP model for the SDFM. Unlike the DPDP model which consists of two equations for the two-continuum coupled by a transfer term, the proposed single-domain fracture model (SDFM) model consists of a single equation for the single-continuum. Each one of the two models includes slippage effect, adsorption, Knudsen diffusion, geomechanics, and thermodynamics deviation factor. For the thermodynamics calculations, the cubic Peng-Robinson equation of state is employed. The diffusion model is verified by calculating the total mass flux through a nanopore by combination of slip flow and Knudsen diffusion and compared with experimental data. A semi-implicit scheme is used for the time discretization while the thermodynamics equations are updated explicitly. The spatial discretization is done using the cell-centered finite difference (CCFD) method. Finally, numerical experiments are performed under variations of the physical parameters. Several results are discussed such as pressure, production rate and cumulative production. We compare the results of the two models using the same dimensions and physical and computational parameters. We found that the DPDP and the SDFM models production rate and cumulative production behave similarly with approximately the same slope but with some differences in values. Moreover, we found that the poroelasticity effect reduces the production rate and consequently the cumulative production rate but in the SDFM model the reservoir takes more time to achieve depletion than the DPDP model. The normal fracture factor which appears in the transfer term of the DPDP model is adjusted against the SDFM.

Directional Passive Condensate Film Drainage on a Horizontal Surface With Periodic Asymmetrical Structures

Condensation of a highly wetting fluid on a horizontal surface with asymmetric millimeter-sized ratchets and periodically located film drainage pathways (DPs) in the spanwise direction is characterized. The hypothesis to be tested is whether the geometry would result in a net steady-state preferential drainage of the condensate film. Experiments are performed using PF5060 on a brass surface with ratchets of 3 mm pitch and 75–15 deg asymmetry. Drainage pathways are varied in density as nondimensional drainage pathways per meter depth ranging from 133 to 400. Experiments are performed at varied wall subcooling temperatures from 1 to 10 °C. Results of the asymmetric ratchet are compared against a control test surface with 45–45 deg symmetric ratchets. Both global and film visualization experiments are performed to characterize the differences in condensation between the symmetric and asymmetric surfaces. Global mass collection results indicate that all characterized asymmetric ratchet surfaces exhibit a net directional drainage of condensate while the symmetric control surface exhibited no preferential drainage. Among the asymmetric ratchets, the total mass flux rate increase with decrease in drainage pathway density, while the net mass flux rate increased with pathway density. Visualization of the condensate film was performed to explain the trends in net drainage with subcooling for different drainage pathway densities. For small drainage path density surfaces, a two-dimensional analytical model was developed to further characterize the effect of ratchet angle and Bond number on the net preferential drainage.

Sonar gas flux estimation by bubble insonification: application to methane bubble flux from seep areas in the outer Laptev Sea

Abstract. Sonar surveys provide an effective mechanism for mapping seabed methane flux emissions, with Arctic submerged permafrost seepage having great potential to significantly affect climate. We created in situ engineered bubble plumes from 40 m depth with fluxes spanning 0.019 to 1.1 L s−1 to derive the in situ calibration curve (Q(σ)). These nonlinear curves related flux (Q) to sonar return (σ) for a multibeam echosounder (MBES) and a single-beam echosounder (SBES) for a range of depths. The analysis demonstrated significant multiple bubble acoustic scattering – precluding the use of a theoretical approach to derive Q(σ) from the product of the bubble σ(r) and the bubble size distribution where r is bubble radius. The bubble plume σ occurrence probability distribution function (Ψ(σ)) with respect to Q found Ψ(σ) for weak σ well described by a power law that likely correlated with small-bubble dispersion and was strongly depth dependent. Ψ(σ) for strong σ was largely depth independent, consistent with bubble plume behavior where large bubbles in a plume remain in a focused core. Ψ(σ) was bimodal for all but the weakest plumes. Q(σ) was applied to sonar observations of natural arctic Laptev Sea seepage after accounting for volumetric change with numerical bubble plume simulations. Simulations addressed different depths and gases between calibration and seep plumes. Total mass fluxes (Qm) were 5.56, 42.73, and 4.88 mmol s−1 for MBES data with good to reasonable agreement (4–37 %) between the SBES and MBES systems. The seepage flux occurrence probability distribution function (Ψ(Q)) was bimodal, with weak Ψ(Q) in each seep area well described by a power law, suggesting primarily minor bubble plumes. The seepage-mapped spatial patterns suggested subsurface geologic control attributing methane fluxes to the current state of subsea permafrost.

Gas Flow Behavior of Nanoscale Pores in Shale Gas Reservoirs

The gas transport in shale nanopores is always one of the major concerns in terms of the development of shale gas reservoirs. In this study, the gas flow regimes in shale nanopores were classified and analyzed according to Knudsen number. Then the gas flow model considering Darcy flow, slip flow, transition flow, molecular free flow and adsorption effect was proposed to evaluate the gas flow behavior in shale nanopores. The result shows that the contributions of Darcy flow, slip flow and transition flow in shale nanopores are reciprocal, and are mainly dominated by pore radius and pressure. The adsorption effect greatly influences the total mass flux. The total mass flux will increase as Langmuir pressure and temperature increase while it will decrease with reservoir pressure and the adsorption thickness. These results can provide insights for a better understanding of gas flow in the shale nanopores so as to optimize the production performance of shale gas reservoirs.