Total Development Effort Research Articles

Data-driven agile software cost estimation models for DHS and DoD

Problem:Since the Manifesto for Agile Software Development, the cost analysis community has struggled to find the most appropriate size measures for developing accurate agile software development cost estimates at an early phase to establish baseline budgets and schedules, and for the selection of competitive bidders. At this time, common agile sizing measures such as Story Points are not practical since these are reported months after contract award in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and Department of Defense (DoD). The problem is compounded with the lack of data to build estimation models for informed decisions. Aims:The primary objective is to investigate how well two new size measures (Functional Story and Issues) accurately relate to total effort, and how these compare and rank against four popular software size measures (Story, Story Point, Unadjusted Function Points, and Simple Function Points). The second objective is to rank the six sizing measures based on how well each estimate software development effort at an early phase or after contract award. Method:The experimental framework relied on an analysis of variance and goodness-of-fit tests to examine and compare the accuracy of effort estimation models using six competing size measures. The analysis is based on data from 17 agile projects implemented between 2014 to 2021. Results:Our two new size measures (Functional Story, Issues) proved to be good predicters of total software development effort. Functional Story is better at predicting total effort at early phase than Function Points and Story. Functional Story and Function Points are better at predicting total effort after contract award than Story Point and Issues. Conclusion:The DHS and DoD cost community can choose one or more of these estimation models to evaluate agile software development cost proposals or track agile developer’s progress after contract award.

UNIVERSITY STARTUP INTENSITY AND FACULTY QUALITY

Using a theoretical model of university technology transfer and licensing survey data from 1991 to 2013, we show that greater faculty quality and venture capital availability is positively associated with licenses to startups. We employ a two‐stage game of licensing terms (royalty rate and fixed fee) and development efforts to show that under reasonable conditions, licensing to a startup rather than an established firm will be more attractive to a technology transfer office (TTO) because the inventor's ownership share in a startup firm will increase total development efforts by the inventor and licensee. TTOs will be more likely to target startup licensees when the marginal effect of the faculty inventor's additional development effort on the probability of success is large relative to that of the venture capitalist or established firm. Empirical evidence supports the results of the model; using Associated University Technology Data licensing survey data and employing panel and cross‐sectional analyses, we show that an increase in the quality of engineering faculty has roughly twice the positive impact on startup licenses than on established firm licenses. Startup licensing is also strongly impacted by venture capital availability within institutions over time. (JEL L24, L26, D86)

Implementation and Evaluation of a Component-Based framework for Internet Applications

In previous publications we have introduced the concept of using a component-based software engineering paradigm to build Internet-enabled applications. We have proposed that this design allows for greater flexibility in deployment, better utilisation of resources and a reduction in total application development effort. We have described a system and realised that system as an API that can be used to design, build and execute such components. In this report we provide an overview of the key system components and present an implementation of an application developed using the system. We use this application to perform experimental and functional comparisons to show that the system provides advancements over the status quo.

O papel estratégico da Fiocruz no contexto da Política Nacional de Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação em Saúde

Health is both an essential dimension of conditions for citizenship and a central part of an extremely limited set of production and innovation systems that define the future possibilities for countries to achieve development and overcome the heavy inequalities characterizing the global context. In contemporary world history, only countries that have succeeded in establishing endogenous innovation bases have managed to overcome the barriers of backwardness and position themselves as sovereign nations to set the course for their own development. The area of science, technology, and innovation in health shows a deep and growing asymmetry in the generation of health knowledge. Of the total world research and development effort in health, 96% of expenditures are concentrated in the developed nations, with only 4% in medium and low-income countries like Brazil. The health goods and services industry accounts for the majority of these R&D activities in the developed countries, following a logic that is invariably disconnected from social needs and national health innovation systems in countries like Brazil. The utilization of health research conducted inside Brazil is extremely weak, raising a huge challenge for transforming our productive sector in order for it to become significantly involved in high-intensity activities in terms of knowledge and innovation, meanwhile linked to the country’s social needs. We have just witnessed the strong dynamism of Brazil’s scientific output, with a 56% increase from 2007 to 2008 and the country moving from 15 th to 13th place in the international ranking of scientific articles. This science output represents 2.12% of world production (http://www.sciencewatch.com), or nearly double Brazil’s proportional share of the global GDP, with health as one of the country’s principal research areas. Brazil’s main dilemma is that it has qualified researchers and a consolidated science and technology base in health, in addition to a broad and diversified base for the production of goods and services in health (unparalleled in Latin America), but relatively little productive advantage is taken of the knowledge generated thereby in order to meet the population’s needs. In dealing with this situation, the country also has a state structure that was weakened by the prevailing view during the neo-liberal period. Innovation and development cannot exist without breaking the shackles of a backward structure. Innovation requires an innovative state, and we are offering Fiocruz to society as an advanced field for experimentation with new forms of state action, as an institution that is both democratic, flexible, networked, and devoted to transformation. In this context, Fiocruz submits its proposal to Brazilian society to serve as a strategic state institution that follows the example set by Oswaldo Cruz in order to allow harmonizing Brazilian health science with the Brazilian population’s needs and establishing an endogenous base for innovation. Fiocruz thus embraces its mission as anchor in the national health development process, in partnership with other Brazilian institutions, helping form a technical, scientific, productive, and political network at the national and international levels. The ultimate goal of a strategy for science, technology, and innovation in health is to contribute to the objectives of Health Reform in Brazil. The challenge is huge and requires profound changes in the relationship between research, innovation, and production, but we are confident that the current context presents an opportunity for Brazil’s inclusion in a new development standard that combines competitiveness, innovation, equity, and the guarantee of the population’s universal access to strategic goods, services, and knowledge in health.

Three empirical studies on estimating the design effort of Web applications

Our research focuses on the effort needed for designing modern Web applications. The design effort is an important part of the total development effort, since the implementation can be partially automated by tools. We carried out three empirical studies with students of advanced university classes enrolled in engineering and communication sciences curricula. The empirical studies are based on the use of W2000, a special-purpose design notation for the design of Web applications, but the hypotheses and results may apply to a wider class of modeling notations (e.g., OOHDM, WebML, or UWE). We started by investigating the relative importance of each design activity. We then assessed the accuracy of a priori design effort predictions and the influence of a few process-related factors on the effort needed for each design activity. We also analyzed the impact of attributes like the size and complexity of W2000 design artifacts on the total effort needed to design the user experience of web applications. In addition, we carried out a finer-grain analysis, by studying which of these attributes impact the effort devoted to the steps of the design phase that are followed when using W2000.

Measuring and optimizing systems' quality costs and project duration

This paper depicts Israel Aircraft Industry's (IAI's) real-life experience in measuring and optimizing system's quality costs and project duration associated with upgrading a transport helicopter's avionic system. Quality costs are composed of investments in systems appraisal as well as risk impacts and systems' failures costs. Our objective was to measure systems quality cost/times in a typical development project as well as suggest ways to optimize it in order to meet IAI's business objectives. Relevant data were gathered from historical records, a real-life “pilot project,” and domain experts. This data were aggregated and utilized to calibrate a Verification, Validation, and Testing (VVT) cost/time model for estimating key quality components. Optimized VVT strategies were generated intending to minimize the quality costs and/or project duration. Study findings indicate that over 60% of development cost was spent on quality. In addition, about 10% of the total development effort was spent on the Definition phase and, within that phase, only 1%–2% of the total development cost was invested in quality. Finally, the results of the optimization runs indicated a practical savings of about 15% in quality cost. Another optimized VVT strategy yielded over 20% improvement in project duration. Clearly our current VVT strategy is not optimal. First we should increase significantly the level of VVT performance during the Definition and Design phases. In addition, we should reduce the performance level of certain VVT activities which are not cost effective. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Syst Eng 9: 259–280, 2006

Optimizing financial budget for software implementation based on the development effort and cost function

In every software development project, managers face the problem of efficiently and effectively allocating scare resources such as financial budget to meet organizational needs. This study considers the problem of optimal allocation of the financial budget to a software implementation. Boehm's and Putnam's models are used to formulate the relation functions of the development effort and development cost in the paper. The optimal model for the problem of minimizing the total development effort of the system and the one for the problem of minimizing the greatest development effort in each module are proposed, respectively. At same time, some simple and fast solutions to handle them are also proposed in the paper. The presented approach extends previous works by expanding the applying scope of models.

PRODUCT AND PROCESS DEVELOPMENT INTENSITY IN PROCESS INDUSTRY: A CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF THE ALLOCATION OF COMPANY RESOURCES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

In Process Industry, process development traditionally takes a large part of the company's total development efforts, but has nevertheless not received much attention in academic studies. As a part of a larger research project concerning process development in Process Industry, the allocation of company resources to R&D, and to process development in particular, has been investigated in an exploratory survey to R&D managers in European Process Industry (Mining & Mineral Industry, Food & Beverage Industry, Pulp & Paper Industry, Chemical Industry, Basic Metal Industry, and Other Process Industry). The results show that of the total resources for R&D, 40% was allocated to process development, and over 60% of the companies expected this figure to increase in the future. This figure not only shows the future importance of process development, but also indicates that the importance of product development in this group of companies is at present still rated higher than process development. The results from the study do not fit the most widely used theoretical models, and it is concluded that there is a need for better models with more explanatory power. The new concepts of product and process development intensity are introduced. The product and process development intensities can be looked upon as aggregated measures of individual development efforts by a company, and it is thus argued that they are of overall company strategic importance.

주성분분석을 이용한 소프트웨어 개발노력 추정능력 향상

Putnam은 소프트웨어 프로젝트에 참여하는 인력이 Rayleigh 분포를 따르는 SLIM 모델을 제시하였다. 이 모델에서 인력분포를 얻기 위해서는 총 개발노력과 개발 난이도를 추정해야 한다. 프로젝트 개발에 참여할 것인지 여부를 결정하기 위해서는 소프트웨어 생명주기의 초기단계에서 이 모수들을 보다 적확히 추정하는 것이 필요하다. Putnam은 시스템 속성들 중 강한 상관관계가 있는 변량을 제거하고 나머지 변량들만으로 총 개발노력과 개발 난이도를 추정하였다. 그러나 통계적 방법에 따라 변량들이 다르게 선택되며 모델의 성능에 차이가 발생한다. 본 논문은 Putnam 방법 대신 주성분분석을 이용하여 최적의 시스템 속성을 선택하였다. 모델의 성능분석 결과 주성분분석 방법이 Putnam의 방법보다 9.85% 성능향상을 보였다. 또한, 제안된 모델은 단순하고 쉽게 구현할 수 있다. Putnam develops SLIM (Software LIfecycle Management) model based upon the assumption that the manpower utilization during software project development is followed by a Rayleigh distribution. To obtain the manpower distribution, we have to be estimate the total development effort and difficulty ratio parameter. We need a way to accurately estimate these parameters early in the requirements and specification phase before investment decisions have to be made. Statistical tests show that system attributes are highly correlation (redundant) so that Putnam discards one and get a parameter estimator from the other attributes. But, different statistical method has different system attributes and presents different performance. To select the principle system attributes, this paper uses the principle component analysis (PCA) instead of Putnam's method. The PCA's results improve a 9.85 percent performance more than the Putnam's result. Also, this model seems to be simple and easily realize.

Abstract: Understanding Prospects in Regional Depositional Environment Settings to Aid a Total Exploration and Development Effort 

Abstract: Understanding Prospects in Regional Depositional Environment Settings to Aid a Total Exploration and Development Effort 

5.6.4 Applying an Activity Based Counting Technique to System Design Efforts

ABSTRACTEstablished costing techniques applied to software based systems provide a reasonably accurate technique in predicting the implementation costs of projects. For projects with a firm design baseline, driven by well defined requirements, the systems engineering cost is typically based on a “tax” of x% of the total development hours.When the software system being proposed is large, or when the customer's needs are not well articulated in the specifications, a simple multiplier against the total development effort is insufficient to predict the systems engineering effort. Even predictions based comparing design artifacts from one project to another cannot be successfully defended during cost negotiations.This paper proposes a technique that assesses the scope of Systems Engineering work by examining the executing features of the design and their associated difficulty. Examining how the system runs early in the development cycle helps the project better understand where the unknowns and uncertainties are in the design, providing insight into technical risk management, as well as providing more defensible costs.

4.1.2 Reconciling Systems and Software Architecture

ABSTRACTLarge, complex systems are increasingly software‐intensive or even information‐centric. As a result, the total cost and development effort associated with software is an increasing fraction of the whole system, indeed a dominant fraction. The techniques of architecting, system and software, are one method for dealing with large and complex systems. Unfortunately, the techniques and models of systems engineering commonly used in systems architecture descriptions are not well suited to enabling effective software architecting. This paper discusses the mismatches and suggests tools for reconciling their needs.

IMPROVING SYSTEM ENGINEERING EFFECTIVENESS >>> THE POSSIBILITIES >>>

AbstractAddresses the extent to which system engineering effectiveness might be improved. These data come from subjective judgments by seminar attendees but reflect a reasonable level of “expert opinion.”Results to date from this on‐going survey indicate that significant improvement is possible relative to prevailing system engineering roles and practices. A majority felt that the results of their total development effort could be improved as much as 2:1 depending on the content and process of their systems engineering activity. A majority felt that the achievement level of their current organizations might be increased by over 1.5:1 simply by improving the behavior in and of the process. These factors are multiplicative. An advanced, systems‐level business might perform as much as 3:1 over many contemporary businesses.

A comparison of function point counting techniques

Effective management of the software development process requires that management be able to estimate total development effort and cost. One of the fundamental problems associated with effort and cost estimation is the a priori estimation of software size. Function point analysis has emerged over the last decade as a popular tool for this task. Criticisms of the method that relate to the way in which function counts are calculated and the impact of the processing complexity adjustment on the function point count have arisen. SPQR/20 function points among others are claimed to overcome some of these criticisms. The SPQR/20 function point method is compared to traditional function point analysis as a measure of software size in an empirical study of MIS environments. In a study of 64 projects in one organization it was found that both methods would appear equally satisfactory. However consistent use of one method should occur since the individual counts differ considerably. >

TRANSURANUS: a fuel rod analysis code ready for use

TRANSURANUS is a computer program for the thermal and mechanical analysis of fuel rods in nuclear reactors and was developed at the European Institute for Transuranium Elements (TUI). The TRANSURANUS code consists of a clearly defined mechanical-mathematical framework into which physical models can easily be incorporated. Besides its flexibility for different fuel rod designs the TRANSURANUS code can deal with very different situations, as given for instance in an experiment, under normal, off-normal and accident conditions. The time scale of the problems to be treated may range from milliseconds to years. The code has a comprehensive material data bank for oxide, mixed oxide, carbide and nitride fuels, Zircaloy and steel claddings and different coolants. During its development great effort was spent on obtaining an extremely flexible tool which is easy to handle, exhibiting very fast running times. The total development effort is approximately 40 man-years. In recent years the interest to use this code grew and the code is in use in several organisations, both research and private industry. The code is now available to all interested parties. The paper outlines the main features and capabilities of the TRANSURANUS code, its validation and treats also some practical aspects.

Successful Quality Assurance Plan for a Large Project

For the past 2.5 years I have been leading a large software development effort requiring 40,000 plus manhours to complete. The project’s completion is ahead of schedule and under budget. Two important elements lead to the project's success: the software quality assurance plan and the close teamwork between the customer and the vendor. The SQA plan consisted of several phases. Two of the phases were critical: the creation of a project plan and the execution of a prototype. The project plan provided a well documented scope of work that the customer and veridor agreed to up front.It was a baseline for negotiating changes. The ability to cooperatively negotiate changes gave the vendor an effective way to tightly control the project's budget and the schedule. The prototype accelerated the entire project life cycle for a small portion of the total software development effort. It provided a means for the customer and vendor to gain confidence in the project plan and in the vendor's ability to satisfy the customer's requirements. Executing the prototype provided the vendor with the data needed to estimate the budget and schedule required to complete the project and to evaluate the risks involved in the completion of the project.

Testing a 3-D radiation therapy planning program

This report describes a systematic effort to test all functions of a large 3-D radiation therapy planning program, including graphics and user interaction. Previous studies in quality assurance for radiation therapy programs do not adequately address the problem of programming errors. They compare dose estimates calculated by planning programs to actual doses measured in phantoms, so they cannot distinguish programming errors from measurement errors or physical unsoundness of the beam model. Moreover, they fail to exercise graphics and user interaction functions. This report describes a different methodology[ test cases are derived from the program specification, results are calculated by an independent technique, and compared to program output. Derivation of test cases is described in detail. Effectiveness of testing is assessed by reporting the number of errors revealed by testing and comparing to the number of errors discovered during routine use in five successive program versions. The size of the test set is related to the total program size, and the effort devoted to deriving and performing tests is compared to the total program development effort. We conclude that systematic testing can reveal errors that are not found by informal testing, routine program use, or comparison with measurements. However, additional errors remain that are only discovered during use. This study suggests that a typical large planning system may include more than 100 errors when it is released for clinical use. Methods for increasing testing effectiveness are recommended.

The Military and Higher Education in the USSR

The military dimension of the Soviet higher-educational system is difficult to explore because of the striking scarcity of published evidence. There is a military presence at all universities and higher-educational institutes. It takes diverse forms, including special military departments and an elaborate system for the military-patriotic education of students. Research is undertaken for defense-related clients, although such research represents a modest share of the total military research and development effort. In general, the relationship with the military is harmonious, but this tradition of harmony, reflecting broader social attitudes toward the military in Soviet society, has come under strain in recent years as a result of changes in conscription policy. In the new conditions of glasnost, discontents have been able to find open expression and this may remain the pattern for the future.

Human Rights for Women and World Public Order: The Outlawing of Sex-Based Discrimination

As the United Nations commemorates 1975 as “International Women's Year,” in a concerted effort to “promote equality between men and women“ and to “ensure the full integration of women in the total development effort,” the concern of the larger global community for outlawing sex-based discrimination is being articulated with increasing vigor. This concern both builds upon and expresses a more general norm of nondiscrimination which seeks to ban all generic differentiations among people in access to value shaping and sharing for reasons irrelevant to individual capabilities and contribution. The particular norm against sex-based discrimination finds expression in many authoritative communications, at both international and national levels, and is rapidly being defined in a way to condemn all the great historic deprivations imposed upon women as a group.

The Consortia Technique

International organization of aid presents two basic difficulties: 1) Major economic development aid should best be conceived as a supplement to total national development effort, not to single parts of it. This means that a program approach rather than a project approach should be applied in financing. Only a program can show whether projects are additional and optimal. While every program must be spelled out in projects, the sum total of individually worked out projects will not add up to a program.