Total Daily Energy Requirements Research Articles

Impact of early nutrition route in patients receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: A retrospective cohort study.

Early nutrition management in patients receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) remains controversial. Despite its potentially beneficial effect, enteral nutrition (EN) could be associated with gastrointestinal (GI) complications. Total daily energy requirements remain difficult to achieve with ECMO support. Analysis of nutrition practices could improve nutrition management of this particular population. A monocentric retrospective study of patients requiring ECMO in a cardiac surgery intensive care unit (ICU) between 2010 and 2014 with follow-up ≥6 days. Nutrition support was monitored daily until ECMO weaning. We compared patients exposed (EN group, n = 49) and unexposed (No EN group (NEN), n = 63) with EN, as well as the energy and protein intakes within 4 days after initiation of ECMO. Vital status and nosocomial infections were followed up until ICU discharge. Primary outcome was the incidence of GI intolerance and risk-factor identification. Secondary outcomes included impact of nutrition inadequacy and clinical outcome. A total 112 patients were analyzed, representing 969 nutrition days. Median ratio of energy and protein prescribed/required daily was 81% (58-113) and 56% (36-86), respectively. GI intolerance was experienced by 53% (26 of 49) of patients in the EN group and was only associated with ECMO duration (odds ratio, 1.14: 95% CI, 1.00-1.31; P = .05). Low-energy and protein days were not associated with clinical outcomes such as nosocomial infections. EN is associated with almost 50% GI intolerance without clinical benefit for patients receiving ECMO. Adequacy in energy and protein amounts did not affect clinical outcome.

Design of a randomised controlled trial: does indirect calorimetry energy information influence weight loss in obesity?

IntroductionRespiratory quotient (RQ) provides an indication of the relative balance of carbohydrate and fat oxidation. RQ could serve as an early biomarker of negative energy balance during weight loss. Restriction...

Estimating total daily energy requirements in community-dwelling older adults: validity of previous predictive equations and modeling of a new approach.

Accurate estimation of energy requirements is crucial for health maintenance and prevention of malnutrition in older adults. This study aimed to assess the accuracy of predictive equations for estimating energy requirements in older adults and to test the validity of new predictive equations for this age group. This is a cross-sectional study including 38 Brazilian community-dwelling older adults aged 60-84 years, who had their total energy expenditure measured by doubly labeled water (TEEDLW). The energy expenditure was compared to the Institute of Medicine (Dietary Reference Intake (DRI)) and Vinken et al. previous predictive equations and three predictive models developed in a modeling sample. The agreement was assessed using intra-class correlation coefficient, Bland-Altman plots, and Lin's concordance correlation. Accuracy was evaluated considering ±10% of the ratio between estimated and measured energy expenditure. The mean (standard deviation) TEEDLW was 2656.7 (405.6) kcal/day for men and 2168.9 (376.9) for women. Vinken et al. and both DRI equations presented moderate to good degree of agreement, while the developed models vary from fair to very good agreement in comparison to DLW. The accuracy rate was the same for both DRI equations and Vinken et al. equation (60.53%). The new equations developed in this study had accuracy in predicting TEE for Brazilian older adults varying from 43.11% to 73.68%. The results corroborate the use of previous predictive equations for estimating energy requirements in Brazilian older adults. Further studies have the potential to explore the use of the developed models to assess energy needs in this population.

Energy needs in the treatment of uncomplicated severe acute malnutrition: Secondary analysis to optimize delivery of ready-to-use therapeutic foods.

Outpatient therapeutic feeding protocols for the treatment of uncomplicated severe acute malnutrition in children were initially based on weight gain data from inpatient settings and expert knowledge of the physiological requirements during recovery. However, weight gain and energy requirements from historic inpatient settings may differ from modern outpatient settings and therefore may not be appropriate to guide current therapeutic feeding protocols. We calculated the weight gain and average estimated total daily energy requirement of children successfully treated for uncomplicated severe acute malnutrition as outpatients in Niger (n = 790). Mean energy provided by six therapeutic feeding protocols was calculated and compared with average estimated energy requirements in the study population. Overall weight gain was 5.5 g·kg−1·day−1 among recovered children. Average energy requirements ranged from 92 to 110 kcal·kg−1·day−1 depending on the estimation approach. Two current therapeutic feeding protocols were found to provide an excess of energy after the first week of treatment in our study population, whereas four research protocols tended to provide less energy than the estimated requirement after the first week of treatment. Alternative feeding protocols have the potential to simplify and lead to important savings for programmes but should be evaluated to show adequacy to meet the energy needs of children under treatment, as well as feasibility and cost efficiency. Our findings rely on theoretical calculations based on several assumptions and should be confirmed in field studies.

Movement patterns and athletic performance of leopards in the Okavango Delta.

Although leopards are the most widespread of all the big cats and are known for their adaptability, they are elusive and little is known in detail about their movement and hunting energetics. We used high-resolution GPS/IMU (inertial measurement unit) collars to record position, activity and the first high-speed movement data on four male leopards in the Okavango Delta, an area with high habitat diversity and habitat fragmentation. Leopards in this study were generally active and conducted more runs during the night, with peaks in activity and number of runs in the morning and evening twilight. Runs were generally short (less than 100 m) and relatively slow (maximum speed 5.3 m s-1, mean of individual medians) compared to other large predators. Average daily travel distance was 11 km and maximum daily travel distance was 29 km. No direct correlation was found between average daily temperature and travel distance or between season and travel distance. Total daily energy requirements based on locomotor cost and basal metabolic rate varied little between individuals and over time. This study provides novel insights into movement patterns and athletic performance of leopards through quantitative high-resolution measurement of the locomotor, energetic, spatial and temporal movement characteristics. The results are unbiased by methodological and observational limitations characteristic of previous studies and demonstrate the utility of applying new technologies to field studies of elusive nocturnal species.

Prediction equation for estimating total daily energy requirements of special operations personnel

BackgroundSpecial Operations Forces (SOF) engage in a variety of military tasks with many producing high energy expenditures, leading to undesired energy deficits and loss of body mass. Therefore, the ability to accurately estimate daily energy requirements would be useful for accurate logistical planning.PurposeGenerate a predictive equation estimating energy requirements of SOF.MethodsRetrospective analysis of data collected from SOF personnel engaged in 12 different SOF training scenarios. Energy expenditure and total body water were determined using the doubly-labeled water technique. Physical activity level was determined as daily energy expenditure divided by resting metabolic rate. Physical activity level was broken into quartiles (0 = mission prep, 1 = common warrior tasks, 2 = battle drills, 3 = specialized intense activity) to generate a physical activity factor (PAF). Regression analysis was used to construct two predictive equations (Model A; body mass and PAF, Model B; fat-free mass and PAF) estimating daily energy expenditures.ResultsAverage measured energy expenditure during SOF training was 4468 (range: 3700 to 6300) Kcal·d-1. Regression analysis revealed that physical activity level (r = 0.91; P < 0.05) and body mass (r = 0.28; P < 0.05; Model A), or fat-free mass (FFM; r = 0.32; P < 0.05; Model B) were the factors that most highly predicted energy expenditures. Predictive equations coupling PAF with body mass (Model A) and FFM (Model B), were correlated (r = 0.74 and r = 0.76, respectively) and did not differ [mean ± SEM: Model A; 4463 ± 65 Kcal·d− 1, Model B; 4462 ± 61 Kcal·d− 1] from DLW measured energy expenditures.ConclusionBy quantifying and grouping SOF training exercises into activity factors, SOF energy requirements can be predicted with reasonable accuracy and these equations used by dietetic/logistical personnel to plan appropriate feeding regimens to meet SOF nutritional requirements across their mission profile.

Organic acid and sugar contents in different domestic fruit juices

Organic acid and sugar contents in ten kinds of juices (two orange juices, two grape juices, two aloe juices, two citron juices, one bokbunja, and one grapefruit juice) were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Citric acid was detected in all the fruit juices analyzed. Grape juices contained the highest tartaric acid content (67.85 - 99.37 mg/100 mL) while orange and grape juices contained a high content of malic acid (151.67 - 211.18 mg/100 mL). Lactic acid was detected in all the aloe juices (35.12 - 65.27 mg/100 mL) as well as in one orange (203.8 mg/100 mL) and one grape juice (112.28 mg/100 mL). Citrus fruit juices (A, A’, F) showed the highest content of total organic acids as 902.81 - 1,103.7 mg/100 mL. With regard to sugar contained in the juices, lactose and maltose were not detected in any of the fruit juices. Even when comparing the same kind of fruit juice, sugar (fructose, glucose, and sucrose) content showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) depending on the manufacturer. In the grape juices, contents of fructose (6.86 - 7.51) and glucose (6.23 - 7.3 g/100 mL) were higher than in other juices. One serving size of the juices (180 mL) analyzed in this study can provide approximately 3.3 - 4.9% of total daily energy requirements when consumed as part of the 2,200 kcal/day diet required for an adult.

The impact of stopping high-energy oral nutritional supplements on eating behaviour and weight gain

Background and aimsMany children referred to a tertiary feeding clinic are already taking high-energy oral nutritional supplements (HEOS), but these often seem not clinically useful. We undertook a retrospective review...

Reduced Resting Metabolic Rate in Adults with Hemiparetic Chronic Stroke

ObjectiveResting metabolic rate (RMR) is the component of energy expenditure that explains the largest proportion of total daily energy requirements. Since RMR is determined largely by fat-free mass and a low RMR predicts weight gain in healthy adults, identifying the role of muscle atrophy following stroke on RMR may help identify ways to mitigate the development of obesity post-stroke.MethodsThirty-nine stroke survivors with chronic hemiparesis (mean ± SEM: age: 61 ± 1 years, latency from stroke: 107 ± 40 months, BMI: 31 ± 3 kg/m2) underwent DXA scans for measurement of body composition, including total, paretic, and non-paretic leg lean mass and fasted, 30-min indirect calorimetry for measurement of RMR.ResultPredicted RMR was calculated by the Mifflin-St Jeor equation, which considers weight, height, and age for both men and women. RMR was 14% lower than predicted (1438 ± 45 vs. 1669 ± 38 kcals/24 hrs; P<0.01). Total (r=0.73, P<0.01), paretic (r=0.72, P<0.01) and non-paretic (r=0.67, P<0.01) leg lean mass predicted RMR.ConclusionThese data indicate that muscle atrophy post stroke may lead to a reduced RMR. This substantiates the need to attenuate the loss of lean mass after a stroke to prevent declines in RMR and possible weight gain common post-stroke.

Performance analysis of a latent heat storage system with phase change material for new designed solar collectors in greenhouse heating

The continuous increase in the level of greenhouse gas emissions and the rise in fuel prices are the main driving forces behind the efforts for more effectively utilize various sources of renewable energy. In many parts of the world, direct solar radiation is considered to be one of the most prospective sources of energy. In this study, the thermal performance of a phase change thermal storage unit is analyzed and discussed. The storage unit is a component of ten pieced solar air collectors heating system being developed for space heating of a greenhouse and charging of PCM. CaCl 26H 2O was used as PCM in thermal energy storage with a melting temperature of 29 °C. Hot air delivered by ten pieced solar air collector is passed through the PCM to charge the storage unit. The stored heat is utilized to heat ambient air before being admitted to a greenhouse. This study is based on experimental results of the PCM employed to analyze the transient thermal behavior of the storage unit during the charge and discharge periods. The proposed size of collectors integrated PCM provided about 18–23% of total daily thermal energy requirements of the greenhouse for 3–4 h, in comparison with the conventional heating device.

Energy Requirements, Prediction of Body Fat and Weight Status Analysis of Nursing Students in Gaza Strip

This study aimed to assess the total daily energy requirements (TDR), body mass index (BMI) , body fat percentage (PBF), and weight status analysis according to body mass of nursing students in Gaza Strip. Study sample consisted of (93) subjects from college of nursing at Islamic university, Gaza, and (61) subjects from Palestine college of nursing, Khan Younus. Systematic random sample was used in this study to select the subjects from both colleges. Average basal metabolic rate (BMR) and approx. total daily energy requirements (TDR) for male students at Islamic university-Gaza (IUG) were 1700 (SD 252) and 2040 Kcal/day respectively. For the female students BMR and TDR were 1506 (SD 213) Kcal/day and 1807 Kcal/day, respectively. Average body mass index (BMI) of the male students at IUG was 23.85 (SD 4.06) Kg/m , and for female students of the same college was 23.97 (SD 4.51) Kg/m . Average body fat percentage 2 2 (PBF) of nursing male students at IUG was 17.21 (SD 4.82) and for females was 27.96 (SD 5.41). About sixty sex (66.1%) percent of male nursing students at IUG had ideal weight whereas, 5.3% and 28.5 % were underweight and overweight respectively. For female students, 73% had normal weight and 27% had overweight. Average BMR and approx. TDR for the male students at Palestine college of nursing (PCN) were 1635 (SD 226) and 1962 Kcal/day respectively. For the female students BMR and TDR were 1470 (SD 152) and 1765 Kcal/day respectively. Average BMI of the male students at PCN was 22.70 (SD 3.25) Kg/m , and 2 female students of the same college was 21.80 (SD 2.93) Kg/m . Average PBF for males at PCN was 15.64 2 (SD 3.90) and for females was 26.30 (SD 3.88). About seventy two (72.2) % of male students at PCN had ideal weight whereas, 5.6% and 22.2 % were underweight and overweight respectively. For female students at the same college, 72 %, 4 %,and 24 % had ideal weight, underweight and overweight respectively.

Daily Caloric Requirement, Body Mass Index And Correlations With Exercise Duration, Frequency And Modality Of United States Service Academy Cadets

PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to examine the daily caloric requirement and body mass index (BMI), and identify correlates between BMI and exercise duration, frequency and modality selection of students at a United States Service Academy. METHODS Seventy male and ten female subjects (age 20.1 ±0.6 yrs; male: Ht: 1.8 ±0.1m, Wt: 79.2±9.8 kg; female: Ht: 1.6±0.1m, Wt: 64.5±4.0 kg) completed a questionnaire identifying daily activity level, weekly exercise frequency (WEF), exercise session duration (ESD) and exercise modality (running (R), strength training (S), combatives (C), ball/team sports (B) or alternate aerobic event (A)). Daily energy requirements (DER) without exercise were calculated by multiplying body weight by estimated energy requirements per kilogram of body weight based on lifestyle patterns and gender. Average daily calories expended as a result of exercise (EEE) was calculated using daily exercise session duration and total calories expended per minute based on type of exercise conducted. Total daily energy requirement (TDER) was calculated by summing the daily energy requirements without exercise and daily calories expended as a result of exercise. RESULTS Data are presented as means±SD. Exercise selection by gender was similar (male: R 55.7%, S 12.9%, C 7.9%, B 7.9%, A 17.1%; female: R 50.0%, S 5.0%, C 10.0%, B 15.0%, A 20.0%). Regression analysis produced no significant results correlating BMI with exercise session frequency (male r=0.21; female r=−0.06), duration (male r=0.03; female r=0.02,), or modality (male r=−0.11; female r=−0.03). 56.3% of the subjects were overweight. (BMI ≥ 25.0 kg/m2). 3.8% were obese (BMI≥30.0 kg/m2).TableCONCLUSIONS The results of this study suggest that there is no correlation between exercise frequency, duration or modality selection and BMI in highly active populations. Total daily energy requirements for male and female subjects were approximately 200 kcals above Dietary Reference Intakes for similar age groups. BMI, which cannot account for muscle and fat mass, should be used with caution in highly active populations.

Symbiotic Fermentation, Digesta Passage, and Gastrointestinal Morphology in Bullfrog Tadpoles (Rana catesbeiana)

Relative to other herbivorous vertebrates, the nutritional ecology and digestive physiology of anuran larvae remain poorly understood. Our objective was to compare gut structure and inhabitants, digesta passage, and microbial fermentation in bullfrog tadpoles (Rana catesbeiana) to those in other herbivores. Bullfrog tadpole gastrointestinal tracts were long and voluminous, with an enlarged colon that harbored a diverse symbiotic community. The transit time for particulate markers passing through bullfrog tadpoles was 6 h, the median retention time was 8-10 h, and gut clearance was 10-14 h postingestion. Relatively high levels of short-chain fatty acids in the hindgut of tadpoles indicated active microbial fermentation in this gut region. This report represents the first account of gastrointestinal fermentation in the class Amphibia. On the basis of in vitro fermentation assays, we estimated that microbial fermentation in the hindgut provides 20% of the total daily energy requirement of bullfrog tadpoles. These tadpoles also exhibited coprophagy, a practice that provides important nutritive gains in other herbivores. The physiological and behavioral characteristics of these tadpoles are remarkably similar to those of other small-bodied, hindgut-fermenting vertebrates, suggesting convergent digestive strategies among a broad range of herbivorous taxa.

Effects of the nematodeGyrinicola batrachiensis on development, gut morphology, and fermentation in bullfrog tadpoles (Rana catesbeiana): a novel mutualism

We describe a novel mutualism between bullfrog tadpoles (Rana catesbeiana) and a tadpole-specific gastrointestinal nematode (Gyrinicola batrachiensis). Groups of tadpoles were inoculated with viable or nonviable nematode eggs, and development, morphology, and gut fermentation activity were compared between nematode-infected and uninfected tadpoles. Nematode infection accelerated tadpole development; the mean time to metamorphosis was 16 d shorter and the range of times to metamorphosis was narrower in nematode-infected tadpoles than in uninfected tadpoles. At metamorphosis, infected and uninfected bullfrogs did not differ in body size or condition. Colon width, wet mass of colon contents, and concentrations of most fermentation byproducts (short-chain fatty acids: SCFAs) in the hindgut were greater in infected tadpoles. Furthermore, in vitro fermentation yields for all SCFAs combined were over twice as high in infected tadpoles than in uninfected tadpoles. One explanation for accelerated development in infected tadpoles is the altered hindgut fermentation associated with the nematodes. Energetic contributions of fermentation were estimated to be 20% and 9% of the total daily energy requirement for infected and uninfected tadpoles, respectively. Infection by G. batrachiensis nematodes potentially confers major ecological and evolutionary advantages to R. catesbeiana tadpoles. The mutualism between these species broadens our understanding of the taxonomic diversity and physiological contributions of fermentative gut symbionts and suggests that nematodes inhabiting the gut regions of other ectothermic herbivores might have beneficial effects in those hosts.

Importance of the Supratidal Habitats for Maintaining Overwintering Shorebird Populations: How Redshanks Use Tidal Mudflats and Adjacent Saltworks in Southern Europe

Abstract The prey-size selection, foraging behavior, and intake rate of overwintering Redshanks (Tringa totanus) were studied in a supratidal-intertidal system with high intertidal densities of shorebirds (100 birds ha−1). For assessing the importance of the energy obtained in the supratidal habitat (saltworks), daily consumption in this habitat was compared with the total daily energy requirement. Redshanks passively select prey within a certain size range from those accessible on the intertidal area. Despite the high prey biomass on the mudflats, Redshanks exhibited a low intake rate during winter (0.321 kJ min−1). This low intake seems to be related to the influence of the high densities of foraging shorebirds on the behavior of prey. Although intake rate was higher in the saltworks, the majority of Redshanks did not choose to feed there in winter. This foraging pattern seems to be related to density-dependent effects in habitat occupancy, as social interactions could have kept Redshanks out of the saltworks in winter according to the predictions of the ideal-despotic model. Energy intake in the supratidal habitat contributed 23% and 82% of the total daily energy requirement in winter and the pre-migration period, respectively. Redshanks were able to meet the total daily energy requirement during the pre-migration period by increasing foraging time in the saltworks. The availability of supratidal foraging habitats seems to contribute significantly to the maintenance of the population of overwintering Redshanks.

IMPORTANCE OF THE SUPRATIDAL HABITATS FOR MAINTAINING OVERWINTERING SHOREBIRD POPULATIONS: HOW REDSHANKS USE TIDAL MUDFLATS AND ADJACENT SALTWORKS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE1

Abstract The prey-size selection, foraging behavior, and intake rate of overwintering Redshanks (Tringa totanus) were studied in a supratidal-intertidal system with high intertidal densities of shorebirds (100 birds ha−1). For assessing the importance of the energy obtained in the supratidal habitat (saltworks), daily consumption in this habitat was compared with the total daily energy requirement. Redshanks passively select prey within a certain size range from those accessible on the intertidal area. Despite the high prey biomass on the mudflats, Redshanks exhibited a low intake rate during winter (0.321 kJ min−1). This low intake seems to be related to the influence of the high densities of foraging shorebirds on the behavior of prey. Although intake rate was higher in the saltworks, the majority of Redshanks did not choose to feed there in winter. This foraging pattern seems to be related to density-dependent effects in habitat occupancy, as social interactions could have kept Redshanks out of the sal...

Continuous measurement of energy expenditure in ventilated burn patients: an analysis.

To predict the daily total energy expenditure of ventilated burn patients, this study was designed to determine the contribution of different activities on energy expenditure over a 24-hr period. Cohort study. Burn unit of an adult hospital. Twenty clinically stable burn patients undergoing mechanical ventilation with 36.7 +/- 4.2 total % burn surface area. Patients were fed according to a previously validated equation which takes into account the Harris-Benedict equation, % burn surface area, caloric intake, body temperature, and the number of postburn days: Toronto Formula = -4343 + (10.5 x % burn surface area) + (0.23 x caloric intake) + (0.84 x Harris-Benedict equation) + (114 x body temperature) - (4.5 x postburn days). The total energy expenditure of patients was measured by indirect calorimetry and their activity levels were recorded over a 24-hr period. The calculated Toronto Formula was 2191 +/- 83 kcal/day and patients were fed 2276 +/- 40 kcal/day. The measured resting energy expenditure was 2149 +/- 102 kcal/day and was similar to the Toronto Formula (NS). The total energy expenditure was 2492 +/- 120 kcal/day. Altogether the activities contributed 27.3 +/- 1.3% to the total energy expenditure and did not correlate with the % burn surface area. The activity factor calculated as [total energy expenditure less resting energy expenditure] x 100/resting energy expenditure was 16.6 +/- 2.4% and calculated as [total energy expenditure less Toronto Formula]/Toronto Formula was 14.5 +/- 4.3%. These results suggest that in clinically stable, mechanically ventilated burn patients, the Toronto Formula accurately predicts the resting energy expenditure and that the Toronto Formula or the resting energy expenditure x 1.2 can be used to estimate the total daily energy requirements.

Assessment of Territory Value by a Tropical Hummingbird (Amazilia saucerottei)

I investigated how a tropical hummingbird, Amazilia saucerottei, determines whether or not to defend a patch of Combretum farinosum and when to begin and end defense. Energetic value of a patch and number of flowers were not correlated through the period of flowering. First-day nectar production per flower declined from 68.11 J in late January to 19.07 J in early March. Patches of defended C. farinosum had a greater maximum number of nectar-producing inflorescences than did undefended patches. The threshold minimum number of nectar-producing inflorescences for defense decreased from 35 to 20 late in the flowering period. Defense began while the number of inflorescences producing nectar was below the threshold, indicating that birds assessed the patch's future value. The energetic value of a defended patch was the same at the beginning and end of territoriality (approximately 36 kJ), but the average number of nectar-producing inflorescences was twice as great at the end as at the beginning (11.6 vs 5.6), suggesting that birds asessed the value of the patch by direct measurement of energy intake. Daytime rate of energy expenditure estimated from time budgets was 0.545 J/sec. Total daily energy requirement was 34.14 kJ/day.

Effect of cecectomy on water and nutrient absorption of birds.

The effect of the removal of the avian digestive ceca on osmoregulation and on absorption of certain nutrients is reviewed. While data indicate that the ceca have the potential for absorption of a significant quantity of water, several studies have demonstrated that effects of cecectomy on water intake and output are transitory and that compensatory adjustments made within 2 to 3 weeks postsurgery allow cecectomized birds to eat and gain weight normally. However, cecectomized great horned owls exposed to 27 degrees C turned over their body water 1.6 times faster than intact owls under the same conditions, suggesting that the ceca do have a vital role in water balance of thermally stressed horned owls. Cecectomy resulted in slightly lower metabolizability of food, lower digestibility of crude fiber in low fiber diets, and greater loss of certain amino acids in cecectomized birds that were fasted or fed a protein-free diet. The latter suggests that the ceca are important in recovery of amino acids endogenous protein degradation. Loss of cecal function also resulted in higher energy intake and excretion in Japanese quail, amounting to 5.7% of the total daily energy requirement.

Daily gross energy requirements of a female northern elephant seal Mirounga angustirostris at sea.

Using an energy components analysis of the 73 day continuous time-depth recording of a female northern elephant seal, we estimated the total daily energy requirement to be between 9.4 Mcal and 10.0 Mcal. Total prey energy consumed was estimated between 15.9 and 16.8 Mcal/day, yielding a diet of approximately 10.7 kg of mackerel or 21.0 kg of squid or hake per day. We estimate that at least 60 % of the dives must be successful to account for the mass gained during the period at sea.