Total Damage Costs Research Articles

Flooding: Natural and Managed Disturbances

Few events capture the public's attention like large, infrequent natural disturbances. Many people vividly recall the human deaths and suffering, economic losses, and environmental changes associated with the eruption of Mt. Saint Helens (1980), the large-magnitude earthquakes in Northern (1989) and Southern (1994) California, the passages of Hurricane Hugo (1989) and Hurricane Andrew (1992), and the extensive flooding of the Midwestern United States (1993). Floods are among the most common and costly large natural disturbances that affect the United States, according to data compiled by the US Federal Emergency Management Agency: Approximately 9 of every 10 presidential disaster declarations are associated with flooding; total flood damage costs from 1990-1997 reached nearly $34 billion; and more than 200 lives were lost due to flooding from 1990-1995. This issue of BioScience is devoted to examining natural and managed floods. There are several reasons to focus on the important role of flooding as a disturbance. First, numerous major floods occurred in the 1990s, including recent flooding caused by El Nifio-powered storms that affected the West and East

Health risks of air pollution from incinerators: a perspective

This paper offers a perspective on the health impacts of air pollution from incinerators by making a number of compari sons in terms of emissions, concentrations, damages and dam age costs. The latter are estimated by an impact pathway anal ysis, tracing the fate of a pollutant from source to receptors. Linearity is assumed for the increase of damages with incre mental exposure. The monetary valuation is based on a valu ation of mortality in terms of years of life lost, rather than sim ply the number of premature deaths. The method is applied to the incineration of municipal solid waste (MSW) with emissions equal to the regulations proposed by the European Commission in 1994 for typical per capita MSW production. Even if all MSW is incinerated (in accordance with these reg ulations), the total health damage costs are relatively minor. Also, the impacts of dioxins and carcinogenic metals are small compared to those of particles, NOx and SOx.

Storm Surges in the Region of Western Alaska

Abstract Within the period of the historical record there have been several occurrences of extensive damage from storm-surge-related coastal flooding in the region of Nome, Alaska. The most recent of these events, although by no means the most destructive, occurred in association with the storm of 5–6 October 1992. Despite the small population of Nome (approximately 4000 people), total damage costs exceeded $6 million. The research into the nature and causes of such flooding events has focused on this October 1992 case. The authors have, however, also examined a weaker, shorter-duration event that occurred on 20 August 1993 and, for contrast, a case in September 1993 where a sustained offshore wind transported water out of Norton Sound. Tide gauge data from Nome were used to quantitatively assess the associated changes in water level, and meteorological analyses were utilized to examine the associated synoptic-scale circulations and their evolution. In addition, numerical modeling experiments were conduct...

A novel approach to preventing insect-borne diseases.

Insects and humans have lived together successfully for many years — the oldest insect fossil is probably more than 390 million years old. Insects have evolved into approximately a million named species that occupy an important place in the world's ecosystem. They also carry microbes and parasites that affect humans (Chagas' disease, Lyme disease, malaria, bubonic plague, and dengue) and other animals and damage food crops (locusts), cotton (boll weevils), trees (gypsy moths), and homes (termites). The total economic cost of insect-related damage and illness is immeasurable but is probably many billions of dollars annually worldwide. To control insects and . . .

A core-theoretic solution for the design of cooperative agreements on transfrontier pollution

For a simple economic model of transfrontier pollution, widely used in theoretical studies of international treaties bearing on joint abatement, we offer in this paper a scheme for sharing national abatement costs through international financial transfers that is inspired by a classical solution concept from the theory of cooperative games—namely, the core of a game. The scheme has the following properties: total damage and abatement costs in all countries are minimized (optimality property), and no coalition or subset of countries can achieve lower total costs for its members by taking another course of action in terms of emissions or transfers, under some reasonable assumption about the reactions of those not in the coalition (core property). In the concluding section economic interpretations of the scheme are proposed, including its connection with the free-riding problem.

Remote Sensing of Flooding in the U.S. Upper Midwest during the Summer of 1993

The U.S. upper Midwest was subjected to severe flooding during the summer of 1993. Heavy rainfall in the Mississippi River basin from April through July caused flooding on many Midwest rivers, including the Mississippi, Illinois, Missouri, and Kansas Rivers. The flood crest of 15.1 m at St. Louis, Missouri, on 1 August 1993 was the highest ever measured, surpassing the previous record of 13.2 m set on 28 April 1973. Damage estimates include at least 47 flood-related deaths and a total damage cost of $12 billion. Remotely sensed imagery of severe flooding in the U.S. Midwest was obtained under cloud-free skies on 29 July 1993 by the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) Airborne Simulator (MAS). The MAS is a newly developed scanning spectrometer with 50 spectral bands in the wavelength range 0.55-14.3 micrometers. Estimation of the total flooded area in the MAS scene acquired near St. Louis was accomplished by comparing the MAS scene to a Landsat-5 thematic mapper (TM) scene of the same area acquired on 14 April 1984 in nonflood conditions. For comparison, the MAS band centered at 0.94 micrometers and the TM band centered at 1.65 micrometers were selected because of the high contrast seen in these bands between land and water-covered surfaces. An estimate of the area covered by water in the MAS and TM scenes was obtained by developing land/water brightness thresholds from histograms of the MAS and TM digital image data. Afetr applying the thresholds, the difference between the area covered by water in the MAS and TM scenes, and hence the flooded area in the MAS scene, was found to be about 396 sq km, or about 153 square miles.

International CO 2 emissions control : An analysis using CETA

This paper explores issues of international cooperation in CO 2 emission control. We consider three cases: ‘selfish,’ in which region 1 controls optimally given its own damage costs and region 2 does not control; ‘altruistic,’ in which region 1 controls optimally given total worldwide damage costs while region 2 does not control; and ‘optimal,’ in which regions 1 and 2 exercise jointly optimal control of emissions and region 1 pays region 2 to participate. We find that neither region gains much in the selfish case; but both regions are better off in the optimal case than in the altruistic case, though region 1's benefits are negative in both these cases.

The cost of flood damage in Nyngan

Four surveys were conducted to assess the cost of direct and indirect flood damage to the New South Wales town of Nyngan, which was inundated in the 4–6 hour period after its flood protection levees were breached on 23 April 1990. A survey of flood damage to 24 residential properties, 14 commercial properties and 6 public authority properties was made by personal inspection. Surveys of flood damage to other public properties, of the worth of the volunteer effort in the evacuation, clean-up and recovery phases of the disaster, and of the value of donated goods and money were made by telephone and letter. The results of all surveys are presented and discussed. The use of a computer model to estimate property damage throughout the flooded area is described. Finally, the total cost of flood damage in Nyngan ($47.3 million) is dissected by type of damage, property sector and community sector.

A minimum cost assessment method for composite generation and transmission system expansion planning

Composite generation and transmission system expansion analysis should take into account both economic considerations and adequacy requirements. An optimum expansion plan should achieve the minimum total investment, operation and damage cost. A minimum cost assessment method for composite system expansion planning, which can be used to consider generation expansion and transmission expansion simultaneously, is presented. The minimization model proposed to incorporate both operating and outage costs can recognize different customer damage functions at different load buses and includes the duration of the simulated contingency system states . A computer program based on the presented method has been developed to provide a set of line, load bus, generator bus and system indices which can be used to select optimal expansion plans at different load growth levels. Case studies in which the method is applied to the IEEE Modified Reliability Test System indicate its effectiveness. >

The Bou Medfaa (Algeria) earthquake of 7 November 1959

The Bou Medfaa earthquake of 7 November 1959 occurred at 2 h 32 min 7 s (GMT); it is one of the most destructive seismic events that central Algeria experienced this century. The main shock, which lasted 8 s in Bou Medfaa, caused only two injuries but made at least 500 homeless; it destroyed or heavily damaged more than 80% of the houses, farms and public buildings in Bou Medfaa and its immediate surroundings. Poor-quality constructions were the main cause of the damage. The total cost of damage was estimated at 300 million French francs. The earthquake was preceded by two slight foreshocks and followed by a series of lower intensity aftershocks. It was associated with slight surface ground fissures in Bou Medfaa. Compilation and detailed study of the contemporary source documents relative to this earthquake have led to the reconstruction of its macroseismic field and thus to the re-assessment of the strength of the ground shaking. Intensities were re-evaluated anew in many sites. Maximum intensity has been re-estimated at I 0 = VIII (MSK), assigned to Bou Medfaa, Hammam Righa and their close vicinities, an area about 8 km radius. The shock was felt as far as Dellys 150 km away with intensity III (MSK). From the intensity data, the macroseismic epicentre was located slightly north of Bou Medfaa at 36·41°N, 2·48°E, and an isoseismal map of the main shock has been constructed. The surface-wave magnitude has been calculated, without station corrections, at 4·90 (±0·40). The instrumental epicentre has been relocated, using the present location procedure of the ISC, at 36·38°N, 2·55°E. The analysis of destructive earthquakes provides a fundamental means for the reduction of future seismic catastrophes by suggesting new ways of improving local construction procedures, building materials, strengthening and properly repairing existing structures and implantation of new urban and rural settlements.

Earthquake reconnaissance report

The magnitude 7.1 Loma Prieta earthquake, at 5.04 pm on 17 October 1989, caused deaths, damage to properties and disrupted transportation, utilities and communications. Electricity and gas in the area affected by the earthquake were supplied by Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E) Company which served more than 10 million people in northern and central California. The company's 1988 annual report showed a total sale of 68537 GWh of electricity. The earthquake caused considerable damage to power generation facilities at Metcalf, San Mateo and Moss Landing. Facilities at Potrero and Hunter Points also experienced minor damage. Damage occurred to old items of equipment which were not designed to PG&E's current seismic specifications. Those which were located on sites near the epicentre of the earthquake suffered the most damage. According to PG&E's report, issued soon after the earthquake, about 1.4 million PG&E customers lost electric power, some for up to 48 hours, and a total cost of damage between US $30 millions and US $50 millions has been estimated. There were other smaller power generation plants in the area besides those owned by PG&E. Most were built recently and, to the author's knowledge, they suffered little damage during the earthquake.

Effects of Airborne Pollutants on Deterioration and Aging Behavior of Materials

Among natural atmospheric influences, gaseous pollutants effect the deterioration of working materials and technical products. Recent calculations estimate the total cost of material damage caused by pollutants to be several billion dollars (US) annually in the Federal Republic of Germany. More precise calculations are not available because there is a lack of information about the contribution of airborne pollutants. In combination with humidity, temperature and solar radiation pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitric oxide (NOx) and ozone (O3) act onto surfaces of materials exposed to the atmosphere, especially stone, glass, paint coatings, and modern polymeric materials. This article deals with the results of a study sponsored by the German, Federal Agency for the Environment (Umweltbundesamt). The experimental weathering of some polymers under laboratory conditions will be described in detail. The test items are exposed in pollution chambers to changes in temperature, humidity, solar radiation with and without single and mixed pollutants. The concentrations used (5000 μg/m3 SO2, 5000 μg/m3 NOx, and 2500 μg/m3 O3), were one order of magnitude higher than those measured in industrial areas. The duration of exposure was more than 2 yrs. A projected network of free weathered test sites at different places in Germany served as a reference.

A further evaluation of the motorcycle rider course

A more extensive evaluation than previously was made of the Motorcycle Safety Foundation's Motorcycle Rider Course. A questionnaire survey was completed by 913 persons who had taken the course between 1980 and 1983 in Illinois and by a control group of 500 motorcyclists who had not taken the course. Compared to the control group, those who had taken the course did not have a lower violation rate, a lower accident rate, a lower total cost of damage to accident-involved motorcycles, a significantly lower mean cost of injury treatment per accident, or a lower total cost of injury treatment. Those who had taken the course did have a lower mean cost of damage to the motorcycle per accident, suggesting that they were involved in less severe accidents. They also made more use of protective clothing. About 30% of those who had taken the course did not subsequently drive motorcycles.

Road User Charges in Britain

Road user charges for commercial vehicles in Britain are intended to cover their fair share of average road costs. This paper calculates the efficient road user cha rge and compares it with the allocated cost. Theory suggests that the efficient road damage charge is only 40 percent of total damage cost s, but that congestion costs may more than compensate for the shortfa ll. This is empirically confirmed for the United Kingdom, where the e fficient charge for cars is shown to exceed their allocated cost, tho ugh for heavy vehicles the two figures are similar. Accident costs ma y substantially raise the efficient costs. Copyright 1987 by Royal Economic Society.