Total Amount Of Greenhouse Gases Research Articles

Role of hydrogen-enrichment for in-direct diesel engine behaviours fuelled with the diesel-waste biodiesel blends

Carbon footprint indicates the total amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere by individuals, institutions and countries. The widespread use of fossil fuels is a big player which increases the carbon footprint. Therefore, switching to sustainable alternatives in energy production and consumption is an effective step in combating climate change, as well as efforts to prevent the depletion of fossil fuels. In this regard, although biodiesels offer a solution to the depletion of fossil fuels, with this advantage, the effects of production processes and use on environmental sustainability should be taken into consideration. Many scientific studies have shown that engine performance remains below standards with biodiesel. The availability of hydrogen as an energy carrier in cylinder to overcome the above-mentioned negative situations has recently become a popular topic for fuel researchers. In this work, the diesel-biodiesel fuels were blended proportionally and tested on a three-cylinder water-cooled in-direct diesel engine at varying loads (15, 30, 45, and 60 Nm) and a constant engine speed of 2200 rpm for observing the effects of test fuels on combustion, performance, and emissions characteristics of diesel engine. First of all, conventional diesel fuel (D) was used to obtain reference data, and then B20 fuel obtained by mixing waste cooking oil with 20 % by volume of diesel fuel was used. The remaining 4 fuels are test fuels obtained by giving hydrogen from the intake manifold at different flow rates (10, 20, 30, and 40 L/min) in addition to B20 fuel. These fuels are called B20 + 10 Lpm H2, B20 + 20 Lpm H2, B20 + 30 Lpm H2 and B20 + 40 Lpm H2, respectively. As a result, the BSFC of B20 fuel increased by 8.78 % compared to diesel fuel, and then the addition of hydrogen dropped the BSFC value by 8.8 %, 13.02 %, 17.16 %, and 22.12 % for B20 + 10 Lpm H2, B20 + 20 Lpm H2, B20 + 30 Lpm H2, and B20 + 40 Lpm H2, respectively. Hydrogen enrichment also had a positive impact on BTE. Although the BTE dropped by 6.14 % in B20 fuel compared to diesel, it increased by 4.51 %, 5.05 %, 5.62 %, and 7.12 % in B20 + 10 Lpm H2, B20 + 20 Lpm H2, B20 + 30 Lpm H2 and B20 + 40 Lpm H2 fuels, respectively. The addition of 10, 20, 30, and 40 Lpm H2 to B20 fuel reduced NOx emissions by 31.25 %, 33.08 %, 38.87 %, and 41.46 %, respectively, and also reduced CO emissions by 17.47 %, 30.73 %, 51.8 % and 59.04 % respectively.

Analysis and Synthesis of the Environmental Progress of Apple Inc. from 2008 to 2022

Apple Inc. has been committed to environmental sustainability since its beginnings and has made considerable strides toward those objectives throughout the years. The company has been aiming to reduce the total amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) released throughout the production, transportation, and disposal of all of their products since 2006. Up to 95% of all emissions come from the electronic industry, including its production, distribution, use, and disposal. Greenhouse gas emissions from Apple's operations are just 5% of the company's total, in contrast to the 100% from its products. Apple Inc. claims it would be vigilant in tracking how its operations affect the planet. In order to ensure that all of its locations are up to par with regulations and industry norms, it has created an EHS management system. This paper details the environmental effect of Apple's facilities, including Apple Retail Stores, describes the measures being taken to lessen the company's impact on the environment, and sums up Apple's most noteworthy environmental accomplishments from 2008 to 2022. The GRI Sustainability Reporting Guidelines (G3) were considered over the course of this research.

Research on Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Methods of SBR and Anoxic Oxic Urban Sewage Treatment System

With the rising awareness of environmental protection, more sewage treatment plants have been built. However, this is also one of the main sources of greenhouse gas emissions. This study carried out a series of sewage treatment experiments to analyze the factors affecting the greenhouse gas emissions of the two commonly used treatment processes in the current urban sewage treatment: the A/O and SBR methods. The experimental results showed that the total amount of greenhouse gases emitted by the A/O method was 415.63 gCO2-eq/m3, and the total amount of greenhouse gases emitted by the SBR method was 879.51 gCO2-eq/m3. The N2O emission factor in the A/O method experimental group was 0.76% of the nitrogen content in the influent. In the aerobic section, when the content of dissolved oxygen was in the range of 1.30~2.10 mg/L, and the content of dissolved oxygen was 1.90 mg/L, the minimum N2O emission factor was reduced to 0.29% of the nitrogen content of the influent. In the SBR experimental group, the ammonia oxidation rate of sewage decreased rapidly as the temperature decreased, thus affecting the discharge rate of N2O. At 25 °C, the biological enzyme activity of nitrifying bacteria was higher, thus promoting denitrification and generating more greenhouse gases. The research results provide reference for strengthening the management of sewage treatment plants and reducing greenhouse gas emissions from sewage treatment plants.

Implementing IPCC 2019 Guidelines into a National Inventory: Impacts of Key Changes in Austrian Cattle and Pig Farming

This study examined enteric and excreta emissions from cattle and pigs with a focus on effects of changed feeding practices. We assessed the impact of a revision of the Austrian Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollutant Inventory (national method, NM), i.e., the implementation of the Tier2-method of the IPCC-2019 guidelines, to a more dynamic integration of past and present feeding practices. Cattle—in particular, dairy cows—had the highest contribution to enteric CH4 emissions and to nitrogen (Nex) and volatile-solid (VSex) excretion, independent of the assessment method (NM or IPCC-2019). These emissions as well as excreta quantities are directly associated with feeding. The most relevant changes from implementing IPCC-2019 were (i) reduced enteric CH4 over the entire time series and (ii) increased Nex and VSex, especially for the period from 1990 to 2005. Additionally, uncertainties in the emissions and excreta were analyzed and related to the quantities of protein consumed. From 1990 to 2020, favorable trends per unit of protein were shown due to increased performance and concomitantly reduced animal numbers. The changes were especially pronounced for CH4, Nex, and VSex from dairy cows (−40% to −46%) but also substantial for other cattle (−26% to −31%), breeding pigs (−12% to −28%), and partially growing-fattening pigs (−3% to −20%). Future mitigation potential may result from reduced dietary crude-protein content, especially in pigs, and the use of feed additives. Feed additives for ruminants with enteric CH4-mitigating effects showed a particularly high reduction potential for the total amount of greenhouse gases from the livestock sector.

How serious is Nigeria about climate change mitigation through gas flaring regulation in the Niger Delta?

Nigeria currently contributes significantly to the total amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) produced in Africa through unabated emissions from its oil and gas industry in the Niger Delta, making the country an important player in global climate change mitigation efforts. Gas flaring is the major medium by which Nigeria contributes to the global percentage of deleterious GHGs released into the atmosphere. Therefore, regulatory efforts at the cessation of gas flaring in the country is important within the wider context of global climate change mitigation, and is worthy of analysis. The recent ‘code red’ warning by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) about the clear and present danger unmitigated climate change currently poses to the planet, together with Nigeria's recent pledge at COP26 to eliminate GHG emissions by 2060, makes this analysis even more necessary. Accordingly, this article generally assesses the efforts of Nigeria at eliminating gas flaring within the context of its international commitments on battling climate change. The first part of the article explores the history and current status of gas flaring in Nigeria. The second part critically analyses the guiding policy, regulatory, legislative, and judicial efforts at ending gas flaring in Nigeria with the view to determining the seriousness of the country in domestically matching its international commitments towards mitigating climate change through the phasing out of GHG emissions.

GI multisociety strategic plan on environmental sustainability.

GI multisociety strategic plan on environmental sustainability.

Quantification of greenhouse gas emission from wastewater treatment plants

AbstractIn this study, a new quantitative approach of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is established. It is developed based on three categories of WWPTs: (1) energy and chemical consumption; (2) final disposal of biosolids; and direct GHG emission from treatment processes, which is helpful to better estimate the GHG emission pathways. The developed approach can provide actual results of GHG emission in terms of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), and methane (CH4) from wastewater treatment process. Then, this method is applied to a municipal WWPT, where the GHG emission from the processes of final treatment, biological treatment, and anaerobic digestion, at the southside of Guelph city in Canada. The results show that there are 6743.8 CO2 eq.kg/day of CO2 and 1924.48 CO2 eq.kg/day of N2O emissions from aeration tank/activated sludge system. The biological treatment and anaerobic digestion release 74177.58 CO 2eq.kg/day of CH4, 7258.5 CO2 eq.kg/day of CO2, and 59022.6 CO2 eq.kg/day of CH4, 3493.24 CO2eq.kg/day of CO2. If the methane, which discharged from biological treatment and anaerobic digestion, is captured and burned for energy regeneration, then it can produce 12937.9 CO2 eq.kg/day of CO2. The total amount of GHG indicates that about 80% GHG is emitted from the final disposal field while 9% and 11% GHG is emitted from biological treatment and anaerobic digestion, respectively. Therefore, based on the calculated results, engineers can put forward suggestions to optimize operation conditions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A Plan to Secure Environmental Sustainability Through Digital Transformation of the Fashion Industry: Focusing on Fashion Design and Smartization of the Manufacturing Process

Although the global market size of the fashion clothing industry is continuously growing, environmental pollution is also intensifying. This study examines the impact of the fashion clothing industry on global environmental problems and the efforts being made to overcome them, and introduces ways to secure the environmental sustainability of the fashion clothing industry through digital transformation that MFAFA Co., Ltd. is carrying out. The fashion and apparel industry emits about 10% of the total amount of greenhouse gas generated worldwide, and has a fatal impact on environmental pollution such as water consumption, soil pollution, and microplastic emission. Various environmental pollution factors are inherent throughout the entire clothing life cycle. Recognizing these environmental problems within the fashion clothing industry, they are promoting the use of eco-friendly materials, minimization of cutting waste, introduction of new manufacturing processes such as 3D printers, and waste disposal in consideration of the environment. MFAFA Co., Ltd. is promoting the development of a digital design tool and small-volume production-oriented clothing smart factory with the goal of securing environmental sustainability through digital transformation. The digital design tool developed a pattern data-based 3D studio to minimize cutting waste and sample production. Users can easily select a variety of design patterns, fabrics, and logos to design unique clothing in 3D. Through this, it is judged that the generation of cutting waste and sample clothing generated in the existing procedure can be drastically reduced. The smart factory is being promoted in a specialized form for small-volume production by reflecting various element technologies, including modular process design, and testing of element technologies is currently in progress. The environmental problem of the fashion and apparel industry is not just a problem for fashion brands. Along with the fulfillment of social responsibility for environmental issues by brand companies, all human beings, who are clothing users, must clearly recognize the current environmental issues. All stakeholders in the fashion and clothing ecosystem agree on the seriousness of activities for a sustainable environment, and immediate action is urgently needed to overcome it.

Sustainable multi-objective process planning in reconfigurable manufacturing environment: adapted new dynamic NSGA-II vs New NSGA-III

ABSTRACT The highly competitive and volatile market puts companies in a tough position. While cost and time efficiency are important to stay competitive, environmental awareness is more and more critical. The reconfigurable manufacturing system (RMS) paradigm is suggested to cope with these new challenges. In addition to its six fundamental characteristics, it is seen as an enabler for Industry 4.0. This article investigates the multi-objective process planning problem in an environmentally conscious manner in a reconfigurable manufacturing environment. Four criteria are minimised: total production cost, total production time, total amount of greenhouse gas produced by machines, and total quantity of hazardous liquid wastes. To address the problem, modified versions of the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA) method, namely new dynamic NSGA-II (NewD-NSGA-II) and New NSGA-III, are developed and evaluated. Rich experimental results are presented and analysed using three metrics to demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed approaches: inverted generational distance (IGD), diversity measure (DM), and cardinality of the mixed Pareto fronts (CMPF). The effects of the similarity coefficient on the convergence of the NewD-NSGA-II and New NSGA-III are investigated, and the TOPSIS technique is used to assist the decision-maker in evaluating and selecting the best process plans.

The carbon challenge

The carbon challenge

Greenhouse gases generated by gold mining. The example of the Apumayo Mine, Peru

In Peru, there are no established methodologies to assess the effects of economic activities on climate change, probably because there is no research to demonstrate these effects at the national level. Even mining being an important economic activity in Peru and the one that has made the greatest progress in environmental regulation in recent years, it does not have research focused on climate change in specific cases. However, there are calculation tools, such as the carbon footprint, that measures the total amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) generated by an activity and gives us a scope of the climate change impacts of this activity or activities. In that sense, the objective of this study was to determine the carbon footprint generated by the exploitation activities of a gold mine in Peru, and thus give a first scope of the impacts on climate change, based on the exploitation of a goldfield formed by volcanic rocks and quaternary deposits. As a result, it was obtained that, due to the significant volume of petrol used in the transportation of ore and waste rock with heavy tippers, the exploitation activities of a gold mine in Peru contributes significantly to GHG and therefore to climate change. Total GHG emissions of carbon footprint from gold production activities at the Apumayo mine in 2017 were 24977.1 tCO2eq.

How Fairness Principles in the Climate Debate Relate to Theories of Distributive Justice

A central question in international climate policy making is how to distribute the burdens of keeping global average temperature increase to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels. In particular, there are four distributional issues: how to allocate the total amount of greenhouse gases that can still be emitted, who should bear the costs of mitigation, who should bear the costs of adaptation to unavoidable climate change, and who should bear the costs of residual climate damage. Regarding these distributional issues the academic literature offers a plethora of fairness principles, such as ‘polluter pays’, ‘beneficiary pays’, ‘equal per capita rights’, ‘grandfathering’, ‘ability to pay’, ‘historical responsibility’ and ‘cost effectiveness’. Remarkably, there is a theoretical gap between these principles and the central theories of distributive justice in moral and political philosophy. As a consequence, it is unclear how these principles are related, whether they can be combined or are mutually exclusive, and what the fundamental underlying values are. This paper aims to elucidate that debate. Understanding the different underlying values may facilitate bridge-building and movement in negotiation positions.

The environmental and financial implications of expanding the use of electric cars - A Case study of Scotland

This paper investigates the expansion of electric cars and their impact on the environment and the user; assuming a future scenario where all of the light-duty vehicles that use an internal combustion engine will be replaced by electric cars in Scotland. The idea is to investigate the impact on the environment and the financial effect on the user. The methodology is based on analysing the most common electric and conventional vehicles to estimate the amount of additional electricity that would be needed to charge that expansion. The paper has also looked at the running costs. The results show that approximately 4 GWh per annum of additional electricity will be needed to compensate for such growth in electricity demand. With the rise in electricity production, the amount of carbon emissions from the electrical grid is expected to increase slightly by 0.47 megatons CO2 per annum. Given that the carbon dioxide generated by the light internal combustion vehicles at the moment is 3.6 megatons of CO2 per year, it is concluded that the total amount of greenhouse gases from the electricity grid will decrease by circa 33.7% if all conventional cars in Scotland are replaced by electric cars. The initial cost of an electric car is found to be higher than conventional diesel or petrol one, but in the long term, the cost to power an electric vehicle is expected to be much cheaper. However, electric cars still have their own drawbacks as they need significant time to be charged, and will consume significant energy for heating the interior and windscreens to prevent condensation in cold weather leading to an estimated reduction in range of approximately 28% in some situations.

Calculating the Carbon Footprint in ports by using a standardized tool

One of the significant environmental threats in ports in recent years are carbon dioxide emissions generated by different activities carried out in these areas, which lead to Climate Change. In the maritime industry, this topic is getting more critical every day. The main cause of Climate Change is the emission of Greenhouse Gases (GHG). The total amount of GHG that are emitted both directly and indirectly by an activity are calculated by the following indicator: the Carbon Footprint.The review of different case studies shows while in recent years many ports calculate their Carbon Footprint and report it, each port uses its own method and there is not any unified and complete method to calculate Carbon Footprint. This makes comparing results among different ports a difficult task and proves the need for such a method. Therefore, it has been developed a standardized tool to calculate GHG emissions in ports. The tool has been developed by using Excel and Visual Basic software and it is based on the WPCI (World Ports Climate Initiative) and IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) guidelines and the GHG Protocol. Such tool is specifically designed so that port authorities can calculate their Carbon Footprint and report it accordingly.The tool has different steps taking into account the three scopes of emissions defined by the WPCI guideline for ports. Once developed, it was validated by a set of selected ports and environmental experts. The final aim is to distribute this tool to all ports and make it freely available.

Prospect of clean coal for sustainable energy mix in Malaysia

This study evaluates the current energy diversification policy in Malaysia and proposes clean coal as an alternative to address the environmental issues and economic sustainability concerns in the power generation sector. In order to clearly picture the competitiveness of the proposed alternative, this study explored two scenarios, namely, Scenario a and Scenario b. The former scenario acts as a baseline, where the conventional coal is consumed for power generation; while the latter scenario looks at the prospect of substituting the conventional coal with clean coal by 5%, 10% and 15%. Mixed with four other energy sources specified in the Five-Fuel Diversification Strategy for power generation, the total amount of GHG that would be generated is estimated for both scenarios. It was found that the substitution approach could reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission significantly by 63%, from 823,498 kilotonne (kt) to 305,288 kt in year 2020. The findings highlight the potential of clean coal as a healthy alternative in reaching the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC)'s target on GHG emission reduction. The results would lessen the gap between the GHG mitigation potential and INDC target, and aid in the formulation of effective energy strategy for power generation in Malaysia.

Carbon Footprint of Different Kinds of Footwear – a Comparative Study

The carbon footprint of a product (CFP) approach is one of the most important tools which gives a possibility to estimate the total amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the whole life cycle of consumer goods. A lot of attempts have been undertaken to elaborate methodology for CFP calculation. Because GHG emissions may occur at each stage of the life cycle, the calculation procedures are characterised by a high level of complexity. This is due to the use of a broad range of different materials in the case of the whole footwear manufacturing process. Owing to this fact, a lot of wastes, sewages and toxic gases may be generated at every step of the production process. For each kind of material used, a lot of determinants should be laid down, such as the source of the material as well as distances and means of transportation between manufacturers and consignees. It causes that estimation of total carbon footprint values is not possible, especially in the case of a long and multi-stage supply chain. With the use of the SimaPro LCA software package, the authors calculated the carbon footprint for seven types of outdoor footwear. The CFP was calculated for each step of the life cycle. Based on the calculations, the correlation dependences were revealed and stages with huge emissivity indicated. Then, with the use of a multivariate regression model, the regression function, which determines the total emissivity at each stage, was estimated. This approach gives qualitative indicators which can be taken into account in making decisions about corrective actions.

Pollution of atmospheric air above the city highways.

The study is devoted to the estimation of pollution deposit caused by vehicles into the city to-tal greenhouse gases emissions and to the forecast of the secondary air pollution with formal-dehyde. The present study contains mathematic model which allows getting the estimation of vehicles emission in the total amount of polluted atmospheric air. The model consists of two intercon-nected parts: a dynamic and a kinetic one. The first part of the model is based on the Theory of Convective Jet and Thermals in the Atmosphere and allows to get the parameters of the contaminated air which is being formed over the highway. The Dynamic part of the model allows to get the total amount of hydrocarbons emission depending on the number of vehicles which is present at the same time on the highway. We also obtain the data on concentration of pollution and temperature increasing in the narrowest section of the thermal jet. The kinetic part of the model allows to determine the concentration of the secondary atmos-pheric air contamination with formaldehyde as a result of photochemical transformation of hydrocarbons which are the part of emission of internal combustion engine. The speed of the transformation reaction was determined by the Can't Hoff-Arrhenius deferential equation. The given mathematical model was tested with the help of the system of regular observation over the polluted atmospheric air in Kyiv city. The comparison of the estimated value of for-maldehyde concentration and the observation data doesn't exceed 5 % above the maximum values. According to average monthly rates there is a false positive error (to + 20 % in the warmest months). Basing on the given model the calculator of concentration of pollution by vehicles was devel-oped. This calculator allows to obtain rapidly the values of formaldehyde concentration, de-pending on air temperature, solar radiation and number of vehicles on the highway. The amount of hydrocarbon emission from the vehicles, according the suggested model, allows to estimate the deposit of vehicles into the total amount of greenhouse gases of the city. The ob-tained results could be useful in forming of ecological policy of the cities and in managerial decision making.

Domestic wastewater management in Greece: Greenhouse gas emissions estimation at country scale

Abstract Information regarding the domestic wastewater management in Greece was collected and the greenhouse gas emissions from wastewater treatment plants were estimated at country scale using a steady state comprehensive model. In 2016, 220 domestic wastewater treatment plants operated in Greece, serving 91% of the total population and treating almost 1.74 × 106 m3 wastewater per day. All systems provided secondary biological treatment, while 83%, 57% and 93% of them provided also biological nitrogen removal, biological phosphorus removal and wastewater disinfection, respectively. Wastewater reuse was applied in 13% of the existed plants, while 38% and 31% of the produced sludge was incinerated and disposed to the landfills, respectively. The average daily production of wastewater was 210 L per capita, while the average sludge production was 15.3 Kg dry solids per capita and year. The total amount of greenhouse gas emitted from Greek treatment plants was 892,454 t CO2e per year. The on-site emissions contributed to 68.8% of the total emissions and the off-site emissions to the rest 31.2%. Biogenic emissions were calculated to 72.7% of the total emissions. Biogas use and net power consumption were the major mechanisms contributing to the on-site and off-site emissions, respectively. The major source of CH4 was sludge disposal to the landfills, while N2O was mainly emitted through nitrification/denitrification during wastewater treatment. The contribution of on-site and off-site greenhouse gas emissions was affected by treatment plants' capacity; on-site emissions were much more important in plants with more than 100,000 population equivalent. Calculation of the specific CO2 equivalent (CO2e), CH4 and N2O emissions showed that the average per capita daily production was 0.21 Kg CO2e d−1, 4 g CH4 d−1 and 60 mg N2O d−1. Future actions should be taken to assure efficient operation of smaller treatment plants, promote wastewater reuse and integrate reduced greenhouse gas emissions strategies on plants’ design and operation. It is the first time that the greenhouse gas emissions from wastewater treatment plants are estimated at a country scale in Europe.

Silk industry and carbon footprint mitigation

Currently there is a concern with issues related to sustainability and more conscious consumption habits. The carbon footprint measures the total amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions produced directly and indirectly by human activities and is usually expressed in tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalents. The present study takes into account data collected in scientific literature regarding the carbon footprint, garments produced with silk fiber and the role of mulberry as a CO2 mitigation tool. There is an indication of a positive correlation between silk garments and carbon footprint mitigation when computed the cultivation of mulberry trees in this calculation. A field of them mitigates CO2 equivalents in a proportion of 735 times the weight of the produced silk fiber by the mulberry cultivated area. At the same time, additional researches are needed in order to identify and evaluate methods to advertise this positive correlation in order to contribute to a more sustainable fashion industry.

'탄소발자국' 개념의 발전 과정과 농림 부문에서의 활용 전망

The concept of 'carbon footprint' has been developed as a means of quantifying the specific emissions of the greenhouse gases (GHGs) that cause global warming. Although there are still neither clear definitions of the term nor rules for units or the scope of its estimation, it is broadly accepted that the carbon footprint is the total amount of GHGs, expressed as equivalents, emitted into the atmosphere directly or indirectly at all processes of the production by an individual or organization. According to the ISO/TS 14067, the carbon footprint of a product is calculated by multiplying the units of activity of processes that emit GHGs by emission factor of the processes, and by summing them up. Based on this, 'carbon labelling' system has been implemented in various ways over the world to provide consumers the opportunities of comparison and choice, and to encourage voluntary activities of producers to reduce GHG emissions. In the agricultural sector, as a judgment basis to help purchaser with ethical consumption, 'low-carbon agricultural and livestock products certification' system is expected to have more utilization value. In this process, the 'cradle to gate' approach (which excludes stages for usage and disposal) is mainly used to set the boundaries of the life cycle assessment for agricultural products. The estimation of carbon footprint for the entire agricultural and forestry sector should take both removals and emissions into account in the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report. The carbon accumulation in the biomass of perennial trees in cropland should be considered also to reduce the total GHG emissions. In order to accomplish this, tower-based flux measurements can be used, which provide a direct quantification of exchange during the entire life cycle. Carbon footprint information can be combined with other indicators to develop more holistic assessment indicators for sustainable agricultural and forestry ecosystems.