Tortricidae Research Articles

Male and Female Tortricid Moth Response to Non-Pheromonal Semiochemicals.

In eastern North America, apple orchards are often attacked by several species of tortricid moths (Lepidoptera), including Cydia pomonella, Grapholita molesta, Argyrotaenia velutinana, and Pandemis limitata. Sex pheromones are routinely used to monitor male moth populations. Adding plant volatiles to monitoring traps could increase the capture of moths of both sexes and improve the effectiveness of mating disruption systems. This study sought to quantify the attraction of adults of four tortricid moth species to five olfactory treatments, namely (1) Pherocon® CM L2-P, (2) Pherocon Megalure CM 4K Dual® (=Megalure), (3) Megalure + benzaldehyde, (4) TRE 2266 (linalool oxide + (E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene (DMNT)), and (5) TRE 2267 (linalool oxide + DMNT + benzaldehyde), in non-mating disrupted commercial apple orchards in Massachusetts. The commercial lure Megalure was attractive to both sexes of G. molesta and C. pomonella. The addition of benzaldehyde to TRE 2266 or to Megalure significantly increased the capture of male G. molesta during the mid and late season of 2021. Only when benzaldehyde was added to TRE 2266 did the latter lure attract P. limitata in 2020 and 2021. The greatest number of tortricid moths (all four species combined) was captured by TRE 2267. This finding highlights the opportunity to enhance the attractiveness of a commercial lure through the addition of benzaldehyde, an aromatic compound, to Megalure. The potential of these additional volatiles to detect moths in a mating-disrupted orchard and/or remove female moths as a component of a management system is discussed.

Prediction of seasonal population dynamics of Grapholita molesta (Busck) and Adoxophyes orana (Fischer von Röslerstamm) in peach orchards using sex pheromone trap and degree-days and its implications in pest management

The successful management of lepidopteran moths in orchards usually depends on the precise forecast of adult activity. However, the seasonal phenology of moths varies between crop cultivars and years, making it difficult to schedule the control measures. Here, we monitored male flight activity of oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta and summer fruit tortrix moth Adoxophyes orana by using sex pheromone traps in peach orchards of three different cultivars for three successive years. We developed a logistic multiple-peaks model to fit data and then calculated degree-days (DD) required for male activity and neonate emergency. Results show that G. molesta and A. orana males had 4–5 and 3 flight peaks per year, respectively. The seasonal phenology of G. molesta or A. orana was quite stable with an identical timing of each flight peak between cultivars in a year. The flight activity was usually higher in the second and third peaks for both moths, with a higher cumulative number of G. molesta males captured than that of A. orana. Compared to A. orana, G. molesta emerged early in spring and required lower degree-days to reach the subsequent flight peaks and for neonate emergency. Our results suggest that to decline the possibility of outbreaks of moths during the growing seasons, pheromone traps should be scheduled in April with a cumulative DD between 49.6 and 207.1 for G. molesta and in mid-May–early June with a cumulative DD between 450.4 and 866.7 for A. orana, aiming to trap the newly emerged male adults or disrupting female mating success of overwintered moths in orchards. Based on the thermal requirement for egg hatching (i.e., 79.4 DD for G. molesta and 90.0 DD for A. orana), insecticide treatments would be applied in late-April–early May and late May–early June to reduce the field population density of neonates of G. molesta and A. orana, respectively, to reduce fruit damage in orchards. Furthermore, pheromone traps set up in late July–early August (573.8–1025.2 DD) for G. molesta and in mid-September (1539.7–1788.9 DD) for A. orana may suppress overwintering populations and thus decrease pest infestation in next year.

Mycoinsecticides applied in late afternoon to avoid solar UV damage are more efficacious against rice leaf-rolling insect pests than those applied in the morning

Beauveria bassiana ZJU435 (Bb-ZJU435) and Metarhizium anisopliae CQ421 (Ma-CQ421) registered as mycoinsecticides in China were tested for control efficacies against the rice leaf-rolling pests Cnaphalocrocis medialis and Parnara guttata, which migrated to the tillering stage of rice crop in three rice-shrimp rotation paddy fields, where chemical control is prohibited. Either mycoinsecticide was sprayed twice at a recommended rate after 5:00 pm to avoid solar UV avoidance (UVavo) or before 10:00 am to increase solar UV exposure (UVexp). The first spray, although followed by two-week harsh weather, reduced significantly leaf roll densities (damages) in the fungal treatments compared to blank control. The UVavo and UVexp treatments resulted in control efficacies of 63 % and 35 % for Ma-CQ421 and 28 % and 16 % for Bb-ZJU435 on day 14. The second spray was followed by two weeks of weather favorable for fungal action. Consequently, Bb-ZJU435 and Ma-CQ421 showed significantly higher efficacies in their UVavo treatments (60 % and 55 % on day 21; 66 % and 64 % on day 28) than in corresponding UVexp treatments (47 % and 43 % on day 21; 53 % and 50 % on day 28). The UVavo versus UVexp efficacies after the second spray were corrected to ∼95 % versus ∼85 % for Bb-ZJU435, and 75–84 % versus 54–68 % for Ma-CQ421 by verifying whether the leaf rolls were empty (damage-transferred) or occupied by a living or mycosis-killed larva in all treatments. The corrected efficacies of Bb-ZJU435 were significantly higher than those of Ma-CQ421. Conclusively, either mycoinsecticide was more efficacious against the rice leaf rollers when applied in late afternoon to avoid solar UV damage.

Role of Essential Oils of Spices and Herbs and Their Applications: A Review

Essential oils (EOs) are pure, fragrant, volatile liquids that are obtained from particular plants. Almost all plant organs, particularly the flowers, buds, leaves, seeds, stems, and fruits, produce essential oils [16]. Terpenes, phenolic chemicals, and alcohol make up the complex mixture of secondary metabolites that make up EOs [8]. EOs possess a wide range of biological activities including antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory ones. Antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory biological actions are only a few of the many biological properties that EOs have. EOs are utilised in sanitary products (fragrances for home cleaning products), cosmetics (perfumes and makeup products), agriculture (bio-pesticide and repellant), and aromatherapy as natural cures. The earliest, simplest, and most widely utilised techniques for extracting Eos include steam distillation and hydrodistillation [17].
 The antibacterial and antioxidant qualities of thymus, cinnamon and oregano essential oils intended for use in the meat sector. Chinese cinnamon and turmeric essential oils have been employed as additives in biodegradable coatings and films [21]. Some plants and EO, including clove, thyme, rosemary, oregano, cinnamon, and pimento, have been found to have strong inhibitory effects on a variety of bacterial pathogens. the essential oils of a number of plant species, including thymus, mentha, artemisia, limnophila, salvia, and rosmarinus, are effective against a variety of arthropod species, including the silverleaf whitefly, aphids, bihar hairy caterpillars, cabbage loopers, diamond back moths, and leaf rollers, which are major pests of horticultural and stored grain crops [45,46]. Patchouli essential oil has also been discovered to be a highly effective substitute for shielding skin from UV radiation. EOs used in shampoo formulations with a pH range of 5.5 to 6.5, such as lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) and geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), may have synergistic effects.

Evaluation of the droplet deposition and control effect of a special adjuvant for unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) sprayers.

Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) sprayers have been widely used in agriculture. With the goals of using pesticides efficiently and reducing their dosage, we evaluated the effects of adding and not adding special adjuvants to UAV sprayers on droplet deposition and the control effect of leaf folder insects. The deposition quantity and coverage area of UAV sprayers with the Kao Adjuvant A-200® on rice leaves were better than those without the Kao Adjuvant A-200®. Regarding the control effect on rice leaf rollers, UAV sprayers with the Kao Adjuvant A-200® were also better, and they also met the pesticide residue limit for brown rice. Kao Adjuvant A-200® can improve the UAV sprayer's droplet deposition and pest control effect. When the pesticide dosage was reduced by 30%, UAV sprayers with Kao Adjuvant A-200® can achieve a good control effect, which is very helpful in reducing the pesticide dosage.

Research on Insect Pest Identification in Rice Canopy Based on GA-Mask R-CNN

Aiming at difficult image acquisition and low recognition accuracy of two rice canopy pests, rice stem borer and rice leaf roller, we constructed a GA-Mask R-CNN (Generative Adversarial Based Mask Region Convolutional Neural Network) intelligent recognition model for rice stem borer and rice leaf roller, and we combined it with field monitoring equipment for them. Firstly, based on the biological habits of rice canopy pests, a variety of rice pest collection methods were used to obtain the images of rice stem borer and rice leaf roller pests. Based on different segmentation algorithms, the rice pest images were segmented to extract single pest samples. Secondly, the bug generator based on a generative adversarial network strategy improves the sensitivity of the classification network to the bug information, generates the pest information images in the real environment, and obtains the sample dataset for deep learning through multi-way augmentation. Then, through adding channel attention ECA module in Mask R-CNN and improving the connection of residual blocks in the backbone network ResNet101, the recognition accuracy of the model is improved. Finally, the GA-Mask R-CNN model was tested on a multi-source dataset with an average precision (AP) of 92.71%, recall (R) of 89.28% and a balanced score F1 of 90.96%. The average precision, recall, and balanced score F1 are improved by 7.07, 7.65, and 8.83%, respectively, compared to the original Mask R-CNN. The results show that the GA-Mask R-CNN model performance indexes are all better than the Mask R-CNN, the Faster R-CNN, the SSD, the YOLOv5, and other network models, which can provide technical support for remote intelligent monitoring of rice pests.

The genome sequence of a tortricid moth, Lathronympha strigana (Fabricius, 1775)

We present a genome assembly from an individual male Lathronympha strigana (a tortricid moth; Arthropoda; Insecta; Lepidoptera; Tortricidae). The genome sequence is 621.0 megabases in span. Most of the assembly is scaffolded into 28 chromosomal pseudomolecules, including the Z sex chromosome. The mitochondrial genome has also been assembled and is 16.68 kilobases in length.

Genetic differentiation and species diversification of the Adoxophyes orana complex (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in East Asia.

The Adoxophyes tea tortrix (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is a group of leaf rollers that cause enormous economic losses on tea and apple crops. In East Asia, taxonomic ambiguity of the Adoxophyes orana complex (AOC), which consists of A. orana, A. dubia, A. honmai, and A. paraorana, has persisted for decades because of vague diagnostic characters. In this study, differences in the AOC were examined to improve species identification, determine genetic variations, and develop control strategies. Analyses revealed that A. orana comprised 2 lineages, a widely distributed Palearctic lineage and an East Asian lineage that was nested with other Asian species. Genetic divergence of >3% is proposed to confirm the AOC species that would benefit subsequent taxonomic revision. The monophyletic Taiwanese A. sp. with 2.8-4% from other AOC species appeared to suggest it as an independent taxon, and low interspecific divergence between A. honmai and A. dubia of 0.3% indicated possibility of recent divergence or intraspecific variations. Our result further suggested that the Z9-14:Ac ratio of semiochemicals could be a reference for the reblending of pheromone attractants in Taiwanese tea plantations. Moreover, the AOC species appeared to have a tendency of specific geographic distributions, with A. dubia and A. honmai in Japan and China, A. paraorana in Korea, and A. sp. in Taiwan. Maintaining the unique genetic composition of Adoxophyes species in each geographic region and preventing the possible invasions into those AOC-free countries through the transportation of host plants are essential in managing the AOC in East Asia.

A review of history and geographical distribution of grapevine moths in Italian vineyards in light of climate change: Looking backward to face the future

Tortricid and pyralid moths include important pests of vineyards. This review offers a retrospective analysis of the geographic distribution expansion of the European grapevine moth, Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and the replacement or marginalization of the importance of the previously largely vine-infesting species, i.e., Sparganothis pilleriana (Denis & Schiffermüller) and Eupoecilia ambiguella (Hübner), because of the combination and interaction between climate change, invasive alien species, and new cultivation techniques. Herein, we have focused on the case study of Italy, which is currently representing the fourth largest country in the world in terms of cultivated wine-growing area, and the biggest producer of wine grapes, as a model to analyze the possible influence of climate change on the occurrence and harmfulness of grapevine moths and what will be the next challenges for their sustainable management. Starting from the retrospective analysis and learned lessons, a research agenda outlining future challenges for IPM of grapevine moth pests in Mediterranean countries is developed.

Spectral sensitivity of retinal photoreceptors of tortricid moths is not tuned to diel activity period.

Leafrollers (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) are a large family of small moths containing over 10,000 species, many of which are crop pests. Grapholita molesta, Lobesia botrana and Cydia pomonella adults are sexually active before, during and after sunset, respectively. We wanted to determine whether being active at different times of the day and night is associated with differences in their visual system. Spectral sensitivity (SS) was measured with electroretinograms and selective adaptation with green, blue and ultraviolet light. SS curves could be fitted with a triple nomogram template which indicated the existence of three photoreceptor classes peaking at 355, 440 and 525 nm. The retinae showed clear regionalization, with fewer blue receptors dorsally. No differences among species or between sexes were found. Intracellular recordings in C. pomonella also revealed three photoreceptor classes with sensitivities peaking at 355, 440 and 525 nm. The blue photoreceptors showed inhibitory responses in the green part of the spectrum, indicating the presence of a colour-opponent system. Flicker fusion frequency experiments showed that the response speed was similar between sexes and species and fused at around 100 Hz. Our results indicate that the three species have the ancestral insect retinal substrate for a trichromatic colour vision, based upon the UV, blue and green-sensitive photoreceptors, and lack any prominent adaptations related to being active under different light conditions.

Features and dynamics of species composition of entomoacarosystems in plum orchards

The long-term analysis of the entomocomplex of plum orchards, carried out in Krasnodar Territory, revealed variations in the quantitative composition of entomofauna of harmful species and the level of their harmfulness. It was established that, in the period from 2005 to 2021, the rotation of dominant and secondary species occurred. The main species included plum Grapholitha funebrana Treitschke and oriental Grapholitha molesta Busck fruit moths, plum black Haploca minuta Christ. and yellow Hoplocampa flava L. sawflies, plum aphid Hyalopterus pruni Geoffr. and twospotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch. Associated species included plum gall Acalitus phloeocoptes (Nal.) and hawthorn Tetranuchus viennensis Zacher. mites, fruit-tree Tibicina haematodes Scopoli and citrus flatid Metcalfa pruinosa (Say) planthoppers and leaf roller moths of Tortricidae family. The group characterised by a limited distribution area includes the Californian Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comst. and Turanian Diaspidiotus prunorum Laing. scales, plum Sphaerolecanium prunastri Fonsc and European brown Parthenolecanium corni Bouche. scales, seed wasps Eurytoma amygdali End., brown marmorated stinkbug Halyomorpha halys (Stål) and secondary insects (unequal bark beetle Xyleborus dispar F., fruit tree bark beetle Scolytus rugulosus (P.W.J. Müller), wood leopard moth Zeuzera pyrina L). When considering the structure formation of phytophage complex according to phylogenetic specialization, taking into account trophic relationships, it was established that the proportion of polyphages is 2.5 times higher than that of oligophages and 8.5 times higher than that of monophages from the total number of registered pest species. In the past decade, a reduction of pesticide load in plum agrocenoses has been observed due to the wider use of agrotechnical methods and the inclusion of bioregulatory and biological insecticides into protection systems, which contributed to the preservation and increase of beneficial fauna. Entomophages constitute 7–10% of the total number of entomoacrocenosis dominated by Hymenoptera and Coleoptera classes and mites of Acari subclass. The long-term monitoring of species composition, rotation of dominant and secondary pest species and entomophages, variations in their number and harmfulness, seasonal dynamics, trophic relationships of plum entomoacrocenosis under varying environmental conditions and increasing intensification of agricultural production expand the possibility of phytosanitary optimisation strategy of perennial agrocenoses in the south of Russia. This contributes to the preservation of regional biodiversity, as well as to the stable production of high-quality ecologically safe products with minimal negative impact on the environment.

Assessing the risk of invasion by a vineyard moth pest guild

Biological invasions are most effectively managed when identified in their early stages, which often hinges on robust surveillance programs. The recent invasion of the European grapevine moth (Lobesia botrana) in California suggests that viticultural areas in the western United States may face severe economic consequences from this and other Tortricid and Pyralid moth species if they were to establish. To gain insights into the risk these grapevine pests pose, we used occurrence records for L. botrana and four other moths native to Europe or the eastern United States and selected environmental variables to predict the extent of climatically suitable areas and potential pest co-occurrence along the West Coast of the United States. A suite of models was generated using MaxEnt with species-specific tuning of model settings. Overall, the results confirmed high suitability for L. botrana to establish across much of the study region, driven largely by high monthly variability in precipitation and low elevation. Two species were predicted to have intermediate suitability to establish over the study region (i.e., grape tortrix moth, Argyrotaenia ljungiana; grape berry moth, Paralobesia viteana), while two others had low suitability (i.e., European grape berry moth, Eupoecilia ambiguella; Christmas berry webworm, Cryptoblabes gnidiella). The highest predicted potential for co-occurrence was between L. botrana and P. viteana, accounting for 19% of the total viticulture area, followed by L. botrana and A. ljungiana for 11% of the study area. These results may help with the optimization of surveillance efforts by indicating which species or areas should be prioritized for the deployment of invasive pest detection programs with pheromone traps. Indeed, given the apparent potential for co-occurrence of multiple moth pests in certain areas, our results may inform where single or multi-lure traps should be deployed as a more cost-efficient monitoring tool.

First Record of Citrus Leaf Roller <i>Archips machlopis</i> (Meyrick) on Sweet Orange in Bangladesh

The occurrence of Archips machlopis (Meyrick) (Tortricidae: Lepidoptera) for the first time on sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) at the Regional Agricultural Research Station, Burirhat, Rangpur, Bangladesh during 2021-22 is reported herein. Larva bears a brown prothoracic shield and a thin white line which delineates the reddish-brown head capsule. Moths are dark grey, 8-10 cm long, while pupa are dark brown to black with elongate cremaster. DNA barcoding with mtCOI gene confirmed it as A. machlopis. Larvae are observed attacking young leaves, and being voracious cause severe foliage damage. It folds leaf around them and feeds inside the folded leaf. Approximately 21.5% young leaves were infested. More investigations are suggested to assess the pest status, hosts, biology and other aspects.

Diversity and Population Dynamics of Pest in Sambawa Tea Plantation, West Java

Tea plants are grown in monoculture on a large scale, so that can be a caused pest in the high population. This study aims to determine the diversity and dynamics of pest populations in Sambawa tea plantations in West Java. Tea pests are found in the crop and on the leaves picked at the plant. The dynamics of the pest population were noted by observing the area of attack, the intensity of the attack, and population density. Twenty-one pests on tea plants were identified based on their morphological characteristics and symptoms. Among them, seven species attack bud and young leaf, two species attack old leaf, twelve species attack young and old leaves, and one pest attacks tree trunk. Twelve pests were carried to the factory’s withering tub of leaves. Tea green leafhopper (Empoasca sp.), tea leaf roller (Caloptilia theivora), tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis bradyi), and tea tortrix (Adoxophyes sp. and Homona coffearia) were the main pests at the observation site. The population of tea green leafhoppers decreased after the second application of pesticides, post-picking, and heavy rains. The tea leaf roller was not found after the first and second pesticide applications. The population of tea leaf rollers began to increase during picking until the last observation. The highest population of tea mosquito bugs was found after the second pesticide application. The population of tea tortrix decreased after the second pesticide application.

Application and Development of Bt Insect Resistance Genes in Rice Breeding

As pests are an important factor in reducing crop yields, pest control is an important measure in preventing reductions in crop yields. With the aim of ending the use of chemical pesticides, biological control and genetically modified methods are now considered more reasonable pest control strategies. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) can produce crystal proteins that have specific toxicity to lepidopteran insects, and so it has been applied as a microbial insecticide in the control of crop pests for several decades. With the development of plant genetic engineering, Bt genes encoding insecticidal crystal protein have been introduced into many crop species for pest control. This article indicates that, after years of experiments and research, Bt transgenic rice is close to becoming a commercial insect-resistant rice, and many studies have shown that transgenic rice has pronounced abilities in the control of pests such as yellow stem borers (Scirpophaga incertulas, YSB), striped stem borers (Chilo suppressalis, SSB), and rice leaf rollers (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, RLR); moreover, it does not obviously differ from non-transgenic rice in terms of safety. This paper suggests that transgenic Bt rice has application potential and commercial value.

Seven New Species of Hawaiian Leaf-Roller Moths (Tortricidae)

Seven new species of endemic leaf-roller moths are described from the Hawaiian Islands: Eccoptocera hinanohomauna sp. nov. (O‘ahu), Eccoptocera ohiaha, sp. nov. (O‘ahu), Pararrhaptica kaiona, sp. nov. (O‘ahu), Pararrhaptica pilikuanani, sp. nov. (Kaua‘i), Spheterista huakunana, sp. nov. (O‘ahu), Spheterista hiwakakahi, sp. nov. (Kaua‘i), and Spheterista hakeaiki, sp. nov. (O‘ahu). With the possible exception of S. hakeaiki, all species appear to be single-island endemics. In addition, Pararrhaptica pycnomias (Meyrick), syn. nov. (O‘ahu), is treated as a junior synonym of Pararrhaptica notocosma (Meyrick) (O‘ahu), Macraesthetica Meyrick is transferred from Eucosmini to Olethreutini, and Macraesthetica semicinereana (Swezey), comb. nov. (Hawai‘i), is transferred from Nuritamburia Koçak & Kemal. A conservation status is proposed for each of the newly described species.

Molecular phylogeny, divergence time, biogeography and trends in host plant usage in the agriculturally important tortricid tribe Grapholitini (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae: Olethreutinae).

The leaf-roller moth tribe Grapholitini comprises about 1200 described species and contains numerous notorious pests of fruits and seeds. The phylogeny of the tribe has been little studied using contemporary methods, and the monophyly of several genera remains questionable. In order to provide a more robust phylogenetic framework for the group, we conducted a multiple-gene phylogenetic analysis of 104 species representing 27 genera of Grapholitini and 29 outgroup species. Divergence time, ancestral area, and host plant usage were also inferred to explore evolutionary trends in the tribe. Our analyses indicate that Larisa and Corticivora, traditionally assigned to Grapholitini, are best excluded from the tribe. After removal of these two genera, the tribe is found to be monophyletic, represented by two major lineages-a Dichrorampha clade and a Cydia clade, the latter of which can be divided into seven generic groups. The genus Grapholita was found to be polyphyletic, comprising three different clades, and we propose three genera to accommodate these groups: Grapholita (sensu stricto), Aspila (formerly a subgenus of Grapholita) and Ephippiphora (formerly considered a synonym of Grapholita). We summarize each generic group, including related genera not included in our analysis, providing morphological, pheromone and food plant characters that support particular branches within the molecular hypotheses. Biogeographical analyses indicate that Grapholitini probably originated in the Nearctic, Afrotropical and Neotropical regions in the Lutetian of the middle Eocene (ca. 44.3 Ma). Our results also indicate that most groups in Grapholitini originated from Fabaceae-feeding monophagous or oligophagous ancestors, and that host plant shifts probably promoted species diversification within the tribe.

Species Complex of Leaf Roller Infesting Litchi (<i>Litchi chinensis</i> Sonn.) In West Bengal with their Seasonal Incidence

An experiment was conducted at Fruit Research Station, Mandauri, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya with a view to rule out the leaf roller species complex associated with litchi (Litchi chinensis) in West Bengal. The result revealed that three species namely litchi leaf roller, Gatesclarkeana sp. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae); leaf webber, Dudua aprobola Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae); litchi leaf roller, Statherotis leucaspis Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) were associated with the crop and hence their seasonal incidence and interaction with abiotic factors have also been studied. Among the species Gatesclarkeana sp. was found least abundant and occasionally observed during fruiting season while Dudua aprobola observed only in copper leaf stage or in soft tender leaves. Statherotis leucaspis was observed as most dominant species in basin of West Bengal which has not yet been reported from the state. The pest remained very active from 26th standard meteorological week and continued upto 47th standard week. Interestingly the same pest was observed during panicle initiation stage to flowering stage, attacking the panicle (maximum 23.75%) which led direct yield loss.

Bats and birds control tortricid pest moths in South African macadamia orchards

The global macadamia industry is growing rapidly, and the world's biggest macadamia nut producer, South Africa, is continuously expanding its production. Insect pest mitigation and research are mainly focused on the damage caused by heteropteran pest species, whereas the damage associated with lepidopteran tortricid moths in South African macadamia orchards is understudied. Here we explore the potential biocontrol of tortricid moths by natural predators through full exclosure of bats and birds, daytime only exclosure (birds), night exclosure (bats and possibly nocturnal birds), and control treatments. The exclusion experiment showed that bats and birds are effective natural predators, which can reduce tortricid moth damage by more than 35%. Impacts of biocontrol are higher at natural orchard edges next to natural or semi-natural vegetation, compared to human-modified edges (12.4% damage decrease in 2017, 10.6% in 2018). At the full exclosure, there was no difference in damage between natural orchard edges and human-modified edges, in both years of our study (56.5% vs. 56.6% in 2017, 19% vs. 18.5% in 2018). We recommend increased preservation efforts of more heterogeneity with semi-natural vegetation in agricultural landscapes to ensure the conservation of biocontrol services, as their loss can be expected to result in significant negative impact on macadamia production. This biological pest control can be used as part of integrated pest management to reduce the reliance on chemical pesticides, so decreasing sustainability challenges.

Trunk injection of plant protection product to defend chestnut tree from tortrix moths

Trunk injection of plant protection product to defend chestnut tree from tortrix moths