Topographic Objects Research Articles

Estimation of Usable Area of Flat-Roof Residential Buildings Using Topographic Data with Machine Learning Methods

The real estate appraisal largely consists of estimating the property’s value based on the transaction prices of similar buildings with the usable area being one of the main comparative units. A Polish appraiser finds data mentioned in the Price and Value Register (PVR). However, one of the authors’ previous studies indicated that the PVR contained highly incomplete information on usable area of residential buildings rendering it impractical for real estate appraisal purposes. Here, we propose a machine learning method to estimate the usable area of flat-roof residential buildings based on Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data as well as the Database of Topographic Objects (BDOT10k). First, we train models with different architectures on the exact project data of residential buildings available online, obtained mostly from the design offices Lipińscy and Archon. Then, we apply trained algorithms on available residential building in Koszalin, Poland, using BDOT10k and LoD1 standard LiDAR data, and compare the results with usable area reported in PVR. Results show that the usable area of flat-roof houses without garages and extensions can be calculated with great accuracy up to 4%, while for more complex flat-roof buildings-up to 4–10%, depending on how detailed data are available. The model may be used by real estate appraisers to approximate the unknown usable area of residential buildings with known transaction prices, and as such increase the number of properties that can be compared to the evaluated real estate. To estimate the usable area of buildings with more complex roofs, a higher standard of LiDAR data is needed.

Who were cartographers of manuscript topographic maps in the Enlightenment?

Abstract. The most difficult challenge is to provide the name of the cartographer, i.e. the author of graphic picture of topography with the use of watermedia on paper, for each important European topographic work. Even though we know the names of chiefs of survey and the most important engineers in field mapping teams, it is not possible to precisely describe their role in creating graphic style for fair copy. The aim of this study was to identify several types of design authorship of manuscript topographic maps in the Enlightenment.Wrede’s map of Silesia was developed under King Frederick II’s supervision, who was himself theoretically and practically competent in map making. The mapping and the resulting protraction copy were made by Wrede and his team, but the draughtsmen were probably coordinated by Oelsnitz, head of the Potsdam drawing room. Such a hierarchical production structure, might also be recognized in the map of Norway developed by order of Huth – the Staatsminister and mathematician – who delegated the coordination of surveying and drawing activities to Staffeldt. In fact, the men responsible for the original map were cartographer Stabell and other engineers. A similar solution would explain the map of the Electorate of Hanover, produced by Hogrewe and his subordinate engineers, formally supervised by du Plat, but with the personal involvement of King George III in the decisions over segment division and cartographic content.Institutional authorship, or maps produced by the head of a specific drawing room and his subordinate draughtsmen. The map of England, attributed to Gardner and the personnel of the Tower of London drawing room, was developed according to this system. Authorship in tandem: those engineers who performed field surveys and sketches, and later produced fair copies (e.g. Roy and Sandby’s map of Scotland) – the former drew topographic objects and the latter was the sole author of landform painting; Avico and Carello (map of Susa Valley) – both put their ink signatures on the map, independent of the cartouche content.Collective authorship where the maps were produced by draughtsmen associated with particular drawing rooms or employed to draw maps according to the protracted copies supplied. The former included, for instance, the case of the map of NE France with Lorraine (from Naudin’s atelier) or the over 3,000 map segments (map of the Habsburg Dominion) developed by officers in Vienna. A further example would be the map of Austrian Netherlands, most probably involving draughtsmen educated in France.The comparison of maps with the actual topographic situation in the countryside, also made us realize that the perception and cartographic work of various groups of map-making officers in similar cultural and surveying conditions, but in different topographic situations, might be interpreted as elements in a broader phenomenon of the understanding of space in the Enlightenment. The use of water-based media allowed for the representation of lands throughout Europe. No other technique offered map makers and artists an opportunity to reflect landscape so realistically. It is, no wonder, then, that it strongly affected the development of modern principles for cartographic design, even being translated through into the engraving and lithographic world of print. The map-making initiatives conducted in the Enlightenment were distinctive, helping define an age and a new emerging Europe. In these manuscript maps, we can see how eighteenth-century European contemporaries helped develop conventions – in the use of line, color, perspective, tone and topographic form – that shaped how their world was seen: on maps, in art, in the political imagination.

Measuring user preferences in virtual reality (VR): 2D versus 3D urban geovisualizations of topographic data

Abstract. Virtual reality (VR) is a display and control technology that provides an interactive computer-generated three-dimensional environment to a user, often via a Head Mounted Display (HMD). VR delivers an immediate and immersive sensory experience of simulated worlds (which may or may not resemble reality), particularly of environments that might otherwise be physically inaccessible to the user due to their location, scale, time or danger. Although the first VR systems began to emerge in the 1960s, their relevance to cartographic applications has only recently become an explicit focus of research. Moreover, the potential of VR technology to visualize topographic databases has yet to be explored by cartographers.In this experiment, we designed a VR application of a fictitious city derived from state 1 : 10,000 topographic data (Polish Database of Topographic Objects BDOT10k) to test user preferences for 2D or 3D urban geovisualizations. The app allows the user to switch between 2D and 3D representations of buildings in the simulation using a remote controller. This functionality enabled participants of the experiment to freely select 2D or 3D mode and for their preferences to be recorded and measured.Our experiment involved two groups, one based in Poland and one in the UK, each comprising 30 participants (students enrolled on a Geography undergraduate course at each author’s institution). Participants performed spatial ability tests to help ensure consistency in the sample and each group was divided into two sub-groups. Participants in the first sub-group were each given a navigation task that required their movement across the simulated city from point A to point B in the shortest possible time. Those in the second sub-group were given the freedom to explore the simulated city without being given a specific navigational task. We then interviewed participants in order to understand their own perception of their experiences in using the app.The results indicate the preferences of the two groups and sub-groups of participants. In particular, we establish whether users preferred the 2D mode for the navigational task and the 3D mode for free exploration. The findings suggest how producers of topographic datasets might develop the functionality of their products using VR.

Transformation of the landscape of pre-industrial space in the multimedia depiction

Abstract. The issue touched upon in the research is connected with the interdisciplinary attitude towards the study of the constantly changing landscape in the nineteenth century Central Europe. Such interdisciplinarity results from the combination of the historical approach with the geographical attitude towards the examination of the past presented by unique cartographic materials.The aim of the research was to work out the method of employing cartographic sources and adapting other sources of spatial information for the study and presentation of the landscape transformations in the nineteenth century that occurred as a result of the industrialization process in Europe.Prussian manuscript topographic maps at 1 : 25 000 scale along with early nineteenth-century maps depicting the pre-industrial landscape constitute a significant cartographic source of knowledge. Apart from city plans and other maps, also space descriptions, preserved statistical data, documents, inventories and archives were utilized as sources of spatial information. Photographs, postcards and prints depicting the nineteenth-century landscape were another relevant source of information. Moreover, the data collected during field work, e.g. pictures and short videos made in selected research areas, were also highly useful. The research was conducted, for example, in towns of Greater Poland of different level of economic development. A few types of settlement units were selected, i.e. the village, the town with a mansion (palace), the ‘Olęder’ settlement and the town.On the basis of maps and archives collected for the research area the multimedia method of presentation of landscape types and their transformations, with the employment of geoinformation tools, was suggested. That methodology of multimedia integration of historical materials allowed one to demonstrate consecutive stages of the transformation characteristic of the nineteenth-century landscape.As a result, it became possible to define landscape types for the areas of different level of transformation and preserve the pre-industrial state. Short videos consisting of several sequences that demonstrated the changing form of specific topographic objects, elements of the landscape from the nineteenth century till this day, were the effect of the work. On the basis of the nineteenth-century topographic maps that employed the hatching method for the demonstration of the relief the models of the terrain were generated, which allowed one to create the transition from the parallel perspective to the bird’s eye view that was employed to depict the pre-industrial landscape.

Landscape evolution in the area of Kazimierski Landscape Park

Abstract The presented research concerning the landscape evolution of the area of the Kazimierski Landscape Park assumed the analysis of landscape changes that took place in the western part of the Nałęczów Plateau in eastern Poland as a result of increased anthropopressure. To achieve this goal, the diverse data was employed: archives of the “Archeological Survey of Poland” obtained from the National Heritage Board of Poland, the registry data from the 16th century made available as part of the “Atlas Fontium” project elaborated by the Institute of History of the Polish Academy of Sciences, old map of the Western Galicia from 1808, a tactical map of the Military Geographical Institute in Warsaw from 1937, and the “Topographic Objects Database” (BDOT10k) obtained from the Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography. Based on the analysed data, maps presenting the development of the settlement network from the moment of permanent settlement of the area up to the present state and maps showing the changes in land use in the Kazimierski Landscape Park over the last centuries have been designed. The results of historical and geographical analyses carried out as part of the research were compared with the results of geomorphological research conducted in the studied area. Verification of the obtained results allowed to determine the scope in which man influenced the evolution of the landscape of the analysed area, including its diversification depending on the historical period and the type of the economy. The process of georeferencing the map of Western Galicia elaborated by colonel A.M. von Heldensfeld from 1808 and the tactical map 1:100,000 of Military Geographical Institute from 1937 covering the research area (14,974 ha) was carried out in the ArcGIS Desktop software. The calibration process was evaluated in the Map Analyst program which makes it possible to analyze the distortions of old maps. Then, vectorization of selected terrain coverage classes and visualization of spatial data were conducted. This way, the land use maps were analyzed in terms of environmental changes that occurred over the past centuries by identifying the areas with the largest development changes. The obtained results were compared with the database of historical objects created for the purposes of this research, based on data provided by the National Heritage Board of Poland and the Institute of History of the Polish Academy of Sciences in order to determine the development trends of the settlement network in the region. The additional statistical analysis made it possible to determine the trend of changes and to interpret the distribution of areas threatened by the occurrence of mass movements with the analyzed anthropogenic determinants.

Spatial accessibility to public transport in a medium sized city using the example of Sanok

The aim of the study is to assess the spatial accessibility of public transport within a medium sized city using the example of Sanok. In particular, the focus was on pedestrian access to bus stops, especially in terms of the distribution of housing and population, as well as the frequency of trips. In addition, an additional objective is to determine the feasibility of using data sources available in Poland, such as the Topographical Objects Database, Open Street Map or the 2011 Census, to study the accessibility of public transport in medium-sized cities. The results should form the basis for further benchmarking of such cities. The analysis showed that the vast majority of the population of Sanok has access to public transport from their places of residence, but the number of available courses varies considerably from one area to another and is divided into working days, Saturdays and Sundays. In most cases, the number of courses serving stops corresponds to the characteristics of their accessibility areas in terms of population or location of important destinations. It also identified built-up areas with relatively low accessibility or lacking good accessibility to public transport. The data sources used in the study, available throughout the whole country, as well as the procedures applied for their preparation and presentation allow for more extensive comparative research in the future in the area of many cities.

Methodology of the automatic generalization of buildings, road networks, forests and surface waters: a case study based on the Topographic Objects Database in Poland

This research presents the formalization and verification of the methodology for the automatic generalization of buildings, road networks, forests and surface waters from the Topographic Objects Database (BDOT10k) in Poland. The article makes the following contributions. First, the generalization methodology contained in the official documents was acquired and presented in the form of the knowledge base. Second, the possibilities and limitations of the implementation of the knowledge base in ArcGIS were discussed. Third, the suitability of the BDOT10k structure for the purpose of automatic generalization performance was verified. As a result of the conducted generalization tests, it was found that the formalization and implementation of the methodology contained in the official specifications, in the automatic mode are not entirely possible. The generalization results, however, are promising. The presented research is in line with the studies recently conducted not only by Polish but also other European National Mapping Agencies.

Lost in Translation: The British Section In «Mercator’s Cosmography» and Translators of The Ambassadorial Office

The article presents an analysis of certain peculiarities of the Russian translation of chapters about the British Iles from the Mercator-Hondius Atlas (published in 1613). These sections were based on the historical and topographical treatise «Britannia» written by the English antiquarian William Camden (1551–1623). The translation was accomplished in Moscow, in the Ambassadorial Office, by Bogdan Lykov and Ivan Dorn, in 1637, and became known as «Mercator’s Cosmography». The comparison of the Latin text and the Russian translation reveals numerous distinctions between them, which shows difficulties the translators faced with. The variety of their problems turned to be rather broad. Also the insufficient knowledge of the Latin language, particularly of its complicated syntactic constructions, compounded their work. Lykov and Dorn had to rethink many things to bring new terms and onyms into another national context that differed from one in what they were created. Proper names, topographic objects, historical facts, terms, the structure of society, government institutions caused perplexities. As an example of this uneasy work, the evolution of the interpretation of the proper name – the name of the text's author William Camden – is examined here. A detailed analysis reveals the mechanisms of adaptation of the new onym and its incorporation to the Russian language. The situation with the interpretation of extracts about social hierarchy, political, administrative and juridical institutes of England looks more complicated. One of such examples is the problem of the interpretation of the most important term for the English history – term «parliament». The difference of the perception of the parliament's functions by the English antiquarian Camden and by the Ambassadorial Office translators is clearly revealed. Lykov and Dorn found themselves in a difficult position: they had to construe this term relying on their own knowledge about English realias which in fact were very limited.

Influence of land cover data sources on estimation of direct runoff according to SCS-CN and modified SME methods

The aim of this work was to assess the accuracy of direct runoff depth calculated according to an original Soil Conservation Service – Curve Number (SCS-CN) method and a modified Sahu-Mishra-Eldho (SME) method based on different sources of information on land cover. Main novelty of this work is using Database of topographic objects (BDOT10k) instead of Corine Land Cover (CLC) for the assessment of land cover in a catchment. The research was performed in the Kamienica river, a right tributary of the Dunajec, Poland. The effect of land cover data on runoff depth was assessed with the original SCS-CN method, and modified SME method. The value of CN parameter was estimated using two databases on land use, CLC and BDOT10k. BDOT10k was proven to be a considerably more precise land cover database that enabled more accurate interpretation. The study demonstrated the highest accuracy of direct runoff calculation with SME-CN method, irrespective of the approach used for determination of the catchment land use. The use of SME-CN instead of the original SCS-CN method provides much more accurate prediction of direct runoff in a catchment.

Differentiation of residential development in Poland’s provincial capitals

AbstractThis article classifies housing development according to horizontal and vertical intensity in the administrative capitals of each of the Polish provinces. Moreover, the distribution of individual types of residential development is assessed on the example of Warsaw. The function of the place of residence is an elementary urban function which translates itself into a large share of residential development in its structure. It assumes different forms which depend on many factors, such as the location in the given region of the world, conditions of the natural environment, housing tradition or location in the city. It should be borne in mind that cities tend to be heterogeneous urban organisms in which different periods of their development overlap which is reflected in the variations in the appearance of development in its individual parts. The character of buildings changes together with distance from the city centre: the farther from it, the less urban the development tends to be, gradually turning into a rural one both within the city boundaries and outside them. The distribution of residential buildings was analysed with the use of measures of centrography, i.e. centre of gravity, standard deviation and the standard deviation ellipse. Data on residential buildings in the cities analysed was obtained from Polish official geodetic and cartographic databases (państwowy zasób geodezyjny i kartograficzny [PZGiK]) – in particular, Database of Topographic Objects. In turn, layers with land parcels come from the Land-Parcel Identification System [LPIS]. Further analyses use information regarding the vertical and horizontal intensity according to the classification proposed by S. Liszewski (1978).

Forest-Cover Increase Does Not Trigger Forest-Fragmentation Decrease: Case Study from the Polish Carpathians

Understanding the causes and consequences of forest-fragmentation changes is critical for preserving various ecosystem services and to maintain biodiversity levels. We used long-term (1860s–2010s) and large-scale data on historical forest cover in the Polish Carpathians to identify the trajectories of forest fragmentation. Past forest cover was reconstructed for the 1860s, 1930s, 1970s and 2010s using historical maps and the contemporary national database of topographic objects. We analyzed forest-cover changes in 127 randomly selected circular test areas. Forest fragmentation was quantified with GuidosToolbox software using measures based on a landscape hypsometric curve (LHC). Despite a general increase in forest cover, forest fragmentation showed divergent trajectories: a decrease between the 1860s and 1930s (in 57% of test areas), and an increase between the 1930s and 1970s and between the 1970s and 2010s (in 58% and 72% of test areas, respectively). Although deforestation typically involves the increasing fragmentation of forest habitats, we found that forest expansion may not necessarily lead to more homogenous forested landscape, due to complex land-ownership and land-use legacy patterns. This is both a challenge and an opportunity for policy makers to tune policies in such a way as to maintain the desired fragmentation of forest habitats.

Zróżnicowanie pokrycia terenu i cech geometrycznych działek wzdłuż autostrad oraz dróg ekspresowych w Polsce

Celem pracy jest ocena zróżnicowania cech geometrycznych działek bezpośrednio sąsiadujących z autostradami i drogami ekspresowymi w Polsce (z podziałem na województwa) oraz analiza ich pokrycia terenu. Dla jego realizacji wykorzystano dane o działkach pochodzące z systemu LPIS (System Identyfikacji Działek Rolnych) oraz informacje o pokryciu terenu pozyskane z Bazy Danych Obiektów Topograficznych (pozyskane z Centralnego Ośrodka Dokumentacji Geodezyjnej i Kartograficznej). Stwierdzono, że występuje zależność nie tylko pomiędzy istnieniem autostrad oraz dróg ekspresowych a sposobem pokrycia terenu wzdłuż nich, ale również pomiędzy cechami geometrycznymi działek. W przypadku, gdy węzły autostradowe znajdują się w pobliżu dużych miast – przykład województwa śląskiego, mazowieckiego czy nawet łódzkiego, wzrasta intensywność zabudowy w ich pobliżu. Ponadto w obszarach, w których istnieje największa gęstość autostrad oraz dróg ekspresowych, działki są zazwyczaj mniejsze.

Introduction to the Special Issue: “Research and Development Progress in 3D Cadastral Systems”

The content of this Special Issue has its origin in the “5th International FIG Workshop on 3D Cadastres”, organized in Athens, Greece, 18–20 October 2016 [1][...]

The analysis of settlement network’s dispersion using Ward’s taxonomy method

Buildings together with related constructions and also with facilities of technical infrastructure create settlement units. A settlement network is made of interconnected settlement units that create the functional structure of the settlement network. After the period of the political transformation in 1989, changes in settlement systems have been observed. The number of buildings has increased, their function, shape, colours and mutual arrangement have changed. The aim of the paper is to analyse settlement units paying special attention to the buildings’ dispersion and their division into the groups of uniform objects (units). The similarity of settlement units (registration ranges) in regard to the concentration of residential housing and productive development for agriculture is determined. Information about buildings’ location and their function is taken from the Database of Topographic Objects BDOT10k acquired from the Centre of Geodesic and Cartographic Documentation. The level of building complex concentration is determined by means of the concentration index on the plane. Advanced techniques of geoprocessing are used in the paper. Units’ similarity is determined by means of the method of numerical taxonomy using the agglomerative combinatorial Ward method. The results of the survey indicate the fact that the level of buildings’ dispersion is influenced not by the amount of buildings in particular ranges but their mutual arrangement and its level in space. However, the ranges with the smaller area are characterised by the lower dispersion level which responds to the higher value of the concentration index. High buildings’ concentration is a characteristic feature of not only the close vicinity of cities. The analyses proved the irregular arrangement of units with various levels of buildings’ concentration without implication to the hierarchy of the structure of the functional settlement network. So, the buildings’ concentration is of chaotic character which confirms the high entropy of the settlement network in Poland.

Comparative Assessments of the Crosswind Speed from Optical and Acoustic Measurements in the Surface Air Layer

A passive optical method for measurements of the average crosswind speed on the atmospheric path has been developed. The crosswind speed estimation is based on the correlation algorithm for measuring fluctuations of the energy centroids of images of topographic objects under natural daylight. Test results of a windspeed- meter prototype, constructed based on this principle, are described. The wind velocity assessments recorded by this passive optical meter and an acoustic weather station are compared. The optimal time of accumulation of the cross-correlation function is estimated, which ensures stable real-time wind measurements.

Lexicographic Problems of Urbanonymy: Names of Topographic Objects in Ekaterinburg and Chelyabinsk

Lexicographic Problems of Urbanonymy: Names of Topographic Objects in Ekaterinburg and Chelyabinsk

GIS estimated potential of rooftop PVs in urban areas - case study Wrocław (Poland)

The authors attempted to determine the amount of a roof's surface required for the installation of PVs panels, in terms of the type of building, roof shape, slope, exposition and potential shading of the structure. The area selected for the study was the city of Wrocław, Poland. Photovoltaics are perceived to be a viable option for reducing the environmental impact of energy production while simultaneously increasing local energy security. Exploiting the potential of cities in generating energy from photovoltaics is increasingly evident; in particular, to provide the individual needs of cities, estates or buildings. Due to the diversity of the construction of buildings' roofs, as well as the impact of neighbouring buildings, determining the technical potential at the stage of preliminary analyses is necessary. For these aims, it seems almost obvious to use high-resolution LiDAR data and a GIS spatial analysis. The LiDAR data in the form of a classified points cloud (12 pt/m2) and the Database of Topographic Object from which information on the building class was taken was used. A digital surface model of roofs with a spatial resolution of 1 m was created from the LiDAR data. A slope and a roof exposition models were created, and the roofs were finally counted in 90 categories. The authors have also analysed the conditions for the shading of their own and neighbouring objects with regard to the vertical and horizontal angle of the sunlight for Wrocław, Poland, on characteristic dates: the March and September equinox, the summer and winter solstice, and analysing the period from 8 am to 4 pm in one hour intervals. Analyses of the available areas were made regarding the building's class.

Using the map service “Wikimapia” to quickly determine the planned coordinates of topographic objects

Using the map service “Wikimapia” to quickly determine the planned coordinates of topographic objects

Multi-Criteria Analysis for Solar Farm Location Suitability

Abstract Currently the number of solar farms, as a type of renewable sources of energy, is growing rapidly. Photovoltaic power stations have many advantages, which is an incentive for their building and development. Solar energy is readily available and inexhaustible, and its production is environmentally friendly. In the present study multiple environmental and economic criteria were taken into account to select a potential photovoltaic farm location, with particular emphasis on: protected areas, land cover, solar radiation, slope angle, proximity to roads, built-up areas, and power lines. Advanced data analysis were used because of the multiplicity of criteria and their diverse influence on the choice of a potential location. They included the spatial analysis, the Weighted Linear Combination Technique (WLC), and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) as a decisionmaking method. The analysis was divided into two stages. In the first one, the areas where the location of solar farms was not possible were excluded. In the second one, the best locations meeting all environmental and economic criteria were selected. The research was conducted for the Legionowo District, using data from national surveying and mapping resources such as: BDOT10k (Database of Topographic Objects), NMT (Numerical Terrain Model), and lands and buildings register. Finally, several areas meeting the criteria were chosen. The research deals with solar farms with up to 40 kW power. The results of the study are presented as thematic maps. The advantage of the method is its versatility. It can be used not only for any area, but with little modification of the criteria, it can also be applied to choose a location for wind farms.

Quantitative assessment of the scope of content of selected topographic maps of Polish lands from the 19th and the first half of the 20th century

Abstract The author presents an overview of the scope of content of selected topographic maps of Polish lands from the 19th and the first half of the 20th century in its quantitative aspect. 19 maps were analysed and a common conceptual model linked to the Database of Topographic Objects (DBTO10k) was developed on the basis of catalogues of object types. Quantitative statistics were also prepared for the object types from maps before and after harmonization. Differences between their numbers within the same maps reflect the conceptual variety of said maps. The number of types of objects (before and after harmonization) was then juxtaposed with selected thematic layers: water network, transport network, land cover, buildings, structures, and equipment, land use complexes, localities and other objects. Such factors as scales, publication dates and topographic services which created analysed maps were also taken into consideration. Additionally, the analysed maps demonstrate uneven levels of generalization. Inclusion of objects typical for large-scale cartography on topographic and general maps is one of the distinctive features.