Top League Research Articles

Objectives pursued by European football clubs: compete for income through victories and media exposure

PurposeThe paper aims to revisit the debate on the priorities of football clubs in talent hiring with respect to maximizing sporting performance or economic profitability. Based on the degree of media exposure of the clubs, we examine whether the clubs’ objectives include, in addition to the classic twofold choice, the aspiration of club managers to gain popularity through media exposure.Design/methodology/approachThis paper applies structural equation modelling (path analysis) techniques to re-examine what is the more realistic description of football club owners’ decisions when hiring talent. Our database comprises teams from the first division of four top European football leagues: 80 observations per season during the pre-COVID period spanning from 2009/10 to 2017/18.FindingsThe results suggest that, when recruiting players, in addition to considering the two classic objectives (wins and profits), club owners also seem to aim expanding the media exposure and popularity of their clubs. Our study reveals that, to explain talent-hiring decisions in football, the ability to attract media attention is as crucial as sporting performance could be. Furthermore, by examining the direct, indirect and total effects on annual revenue, we found that our media visibility index performs a mediation effect connecting sports performance and revenue.Originality/valueAn innovative feature of our analysis is the use of the MERIT media visibility index, which jointly captures the on-field and off-field players’ skills. The consistency and robustness of the results derive from the various specifications of the estimated models.

Identifying successful football teams in the European player transfer network

This paper considers the European transfer market for professional football players as a network to study the relation between a team’s position in this network and performance in its domestic league. Our analysis is centered on eight top European leagues. The market in each season is represented as a weighted directed network capturing the transfers of players to or from the teams in these leagues, and we also consider the cumulative network over the past 28 years. We find that the overall structure of this transfer market network has properties commonly observed in real-world networks, such as a skewed degree distribution, high clustering, and small-world characteristics. To assess football teams we first construct a measure of within-league performance that is comparable across leagues. Regression analysis is used to relate league performance with both the network position and level of engagement of the team in the transfer market, under two complimentary setups. Network position variables include, e.g., betweenness centrality, closeness centrality and node clustering coefficient, whereas market engagement variables capture a team’s activity in the transfer market, e.g., total number of player transfers and total paid for players. For the season snapshots, the number of transfers correspond to weighted in- and out-degree. Our analysis first corroborates several recent findings relating aspects of market engagement with teams’ league performance. A higher number of incoming transfers indicates worse performance and better resourced teams perform better. Then, and across specifications, we find that network position variables remain salient even when engagement variables are already considered. This substantiates the notion in the existing literature that a high degree corresponds to better team performance and suggests that network aspects of trading strategy may affect a team’s success in their respective domestic league (or vice versa). In this sense, the approach and findings presented in this paper may in the future guide team’s player acquisition policies.

Corporate Social Responsibility in top football league in Europe

Sport occupies a significant and impactful position in the lives of many individuals, evoking intense emotions and consistently captivating a broad audience. In today’s economy, the emphasis on sustainability and corporate social responsibility (CSR) prompts scrutiny into whether top football clubs are actively embracing and aligning with these initiatives. To delve into this, the study focused on the top 11 clubs in the English Premier League, distinguished by revenue, and examined their expenditures on CSR initiatives. Despite heavy promotion of CSR initiatives by these clubs, analysis reveals relatively modest actual expenditures on these activities, especially when compared to leading global enterprises. The comparatively low expenditures may stem from flaws in the sports model or an overemphasis on marketing and public relations.

The Evaluation of the Modified Wave Periodization Model Efficiency on the Example of Young Soccer Players' Sprint Tests

The research aimed to evaluate the modified model of wave periodization efficiency in running speed tests conducted among soccer players aged 12 to 16. Participants included prospective players of a leading Polish top league soccer club. The research was carried out from 2018 to 2022 in June (Testing A) and December (Testing B) of each year. The test involved 30-m straight line running with 5-, 10-, and 30-m split time measurements. For this purpose, electronic photocells were used (FITLIGHT, Canada). The six-month training intervention increased the athletes' speed as there was a considerable decrease in the running time over the distance of 5 m (F = 7.86; p < 0.001), 10 m (F = 73.99; p < 0.001) and 30 m (F = 127.55; p < 0.001). Analysis of running performance of young soccer players aged 12–16 showed a significant improvement in speed at distances of 5, 10 and 30 m, confirming training effectiveness based on the wave periodization model. The negative correlation between testing year and performance suggests the influence of biological development on players' speed. The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted training, which was reflected in reduced differences between test scores. Improving initial running technique can contribute to better match results, which emphasizes the need for an individual approach to the physical preparation of players.

Do they really return to early? Investigating the causal effect of rehab time on injury risk after return to play in elite football

In elite football, injury risk is considerable. Consequently, optimal rehabilitation and an adequate time point of return-to-play (RTP) are crucial. The elevated injury risk in the weeks after RTP (e.g. Orchard & Best, 2002; Wangensteen et al., 2016) and the time course of biological healing processes (Orchard & Best, 2002) nourished the speculation that players generally return to early. While the previously reported negative association between rehab time and injury risk after RTP (e.g. Beischer et al., 2020; Della Villa et al., 2021; Orchard & Best, 2002) points in the same direction, the truism “Correlation does not imply causation.” must be considered. To the best of our knowledge, the causal effect of rehab time on injury risk has not been investigated so far. This work aims to contribute towards closing this gap in knowledge. Specifically, to scrutinize if a reduction in injury risk may be expected when RTP is delayed. Previous time-loss injuries and match exposures of players currently playing in the European top leagues (Germany, Austria, France, Spain, Italy, Netherlands, United Kingdom) were collected from public sources and episodes (index injury-RTP-subsequent injury) constructed. Data analysis was conducted in R. Considering the time dependence of the excess injury risk after RTP, we analyzed injury occurrence after RTP within a fixed time frame (28 days). A robust scaling approach was used for making rehab time comparable between index injury diagnoses. Exposure within the 28-day period was adjusted for eventual time loss due to subsequent injury. The association between rehab time and injury was analyzed using logistic regression. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated from regression coefficients and adjusted for baseline probability to avoid overestimation of relative risk (RR). Two approaches were used to delineate a potential causal effect: (a) sensitivity analysis for the putative confounder (using Cornfield’s inequality) and (b) path analysis which due to the simple causal diagram could be implemented by including exposure in the logistic regression model. Eight thousand six hundred and forty-four episodes could be included among which 1,245 (14 %) had a subsequent injury within 28 days. There was a highly significant negative association between scaled rehab time and injury risk (RR 0,896), which was more pronounced for recurrences (RR 0,815). Cornfield’s inequality indicates that exposure would have to be lower by at least ~10% for every interquartile range of rehab time of the respective index injury to account for the observed association. While this is substantial, early return is in fact closely associated with higher exposure and this association accounts entirely for the observed association between rehab time and injury risk (Figure 1). Note that Figure 1 also shows that high exposures are observed exclusively after an early return. We conclude that the negative association between rehab time and injury risk is largely accounted for by higher exposures after early return. However, following from the limitations associated with predicting outside the range of previously observed values, the virtual absence of high exposures after long rehab (for the respective diagnosis) impedes on predicting the effect of prolonging rehab time.

Rankings and Benchmarks of Volleyball Performance Indicators in High-Intensity Volleyball Games

<p>目的：本研究旨在探索高強度排球比賽中技術指標之排名與獲勝基準。方法：資料透過排球資訊系統 (Volleyball Information System, VIS) 收集2017-2021 年台灣企業排球聯賽攻守數據。採用迴歸分析及條件機率鑑定各項技術指標之排名及獲勝基準。結果：結果顯示各項指標之排名及獲勝基準僅有些微地性別差異。首先，防守失誤及攻擊得分是男子組前兩名的指標，女子組則是攻擊得分為最重要之指標，防守失誤次之。其餘的八個指標排名男女組皆一致。 其次，若要將獲勝機率提升至50%以上 (獲勝基準)，攻擊得分必須要超過每局一半的分數，但僅僅2到3個攔網得分便能達到獲勝基準。再者，少數的發球失誤並不嚴重拉低獲勝機率，但1到2顆的發球得分卻可以達到獲勝基準。雖然非得分的技術指標 (如接發球失誤及舉球失誤) 之數量不多，但卻顯得相當重要。結論：條件機率足以呈現排球各項技術指標中整體團隊之獲勝基準。本研究基於統計的佐證提出陣容組建、訓練計畫、以及戰術運用等實務建議。</p> <p> </p><p>Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the rankings and benchmarks of performance indicators in high- intensity volleyball games. Methods: Data were collected through the Volleyball Information System (VIS)for the Top Volleyball League (TVL) seasons in Taiwan from 2017 to 2021. We adopted regression analysis and conditional probability to identify rankings and benchmarks of performance indicators. Results: Results revealed that there were no major differences between the sexes. Dig fault and spike point ranked men’s top 2 indicators while spike point possessed women’s highest rank followed by dig fault. The rankings for the remaining eight indicators were consistent across both sexes. In order to reach over 50% of the winning probability for a set (benchmark), more than half of the points must come from spiking. Achieving the benchmark could be accomplished with just 2 to 3 blocks, and a few service faults were not detrimental. In addition, 1 to 3 service aces was essential to meet the benchmark. Non-scoring indicators such as reception fault and set fault were not common but crucial for overall performance. Conclusion: Conditional probability could sufficiently present benchmarks of overall volleyball team performance indicators. This study offers statistical evidence for roster construction, training plans, and tactic applications.</p> <p> </p>

Match physical performance profiles in professional football: a comparative analysis among players’ positions in the European five top leagues

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to profile the physical-performance related match-data of players (n = 3211) in five leagues (Bundesliga: BU, Ligue1: L1, La-Liga: LL, Premier-League: PL, and Serie-A: SA), regarding five positions: central-defender (CD), fullback (FB), central-midfielder (CM), winger (WN), and forward (FW). The physical-variables were: total-distance (TD), distance at 15–20 km·h−1 (RUNd), distance and efforts at 20–25 km·h−1 (nHSR, HSRd) and > 25 km·h−1 (nSPR, SPRd), accelerations at 1.5–3.0 m·s−2 (mACC), and > 3.0 m·s−2 (hACC), decelerations at −1.5/-3.0 m·s−2 (mDEC), and <-3 m·s−2 (hDEC), and peak-velocity (VMAX). Principal-Component (PC), Cluster and a Mixed-Model analysis were implemented. Results: 1) two PC (explained variance > 75%) grouped variables related to the amount of activity (PC1 = TD, RUNd, nHSR, HSRd,m ACC and mDEC) and intensity (PC2 = nSPR, SPRd, VMAX, hACC and hDEC); 2) CD and CM, in any league, were mainly grouped in clusters 1 and 4, respectively, while the rest FB, FW and WN, were distributed in clusters 3 and 5; 3) the SA and PL leagues, the FW, FB and WN positions and clusters 4 and 5 were profiles closest to the intensity. Knowing physical profiles could be useful both for the recruitment department of the club and for the analysts in those teams that take part in international competitions.

“Chop and Change”: Examining the occurrence of squad rotation and its effect on team performance in top European football leagues

The occurrence of squad rotation in football and its effect on team performance in terms of points have not been comprehensively studied in football performance analysis literature. This study deploys a data-driven approach to examine the occurrence of squad rotation across English, French, Italian and Spanish leagues over multiple seasons. It aims to establish the relationship observed between average squad rotations in starting lineups and end-of-season points. A total of 16,720 matches dating from the 2010/11 to 2021/22 seasons were analysed for average rotations in each team involved and the respective team's end of season points, alongside contextual information such as injury and logarithmic market value. A linear mixed-effects model was used to study this relationship, with each variable as well as interaction of variables being analysed for fixed effects. The results show that a significant relationship exists between team success, average rotation of the team per match and market value of the team, while no significant effects are found for injuries. The results describe how universally deploying squad rotation may not yield higher points over a season, but also shows how the effect of rotations on team success keep increasing as the market value of teams increases.

Is there a nationality wage premium in European football?

We investigate the presence of nationality salary premia in two top European football leagues (the Premier League and Serie A). We uncover a substantial pay premium for South American players (primarily driven by Argentina and Brazil) of between 11 and 15 per cent in magnitude. We investigate possible mechanisms, such as whether these salary effects are driven by new entrants to the league, and whether they are reflected in team attendances and team performance. Fans appear to respond to higher proportions of South American players in England, but not in Italy. We discuss the implications of these results and suggest why potential differences might exist across the leagues.

Video assistant referee and home field advantage: Implications for referee bias

AbstractPrevious research has highlighted referee bias as a potential contributor to home field advantage in soccer. In order to shed light on the importance of referee bias, we exploit the staggered implementation of Video Assistant Referee (VAR) using data from the top domestic league in 16 countries between 2009 and 2019 to estimate the effect of objective review systems on home field advantage in soccer. Surprisingly, the implementation of VAR had negligible effects on home field advantage and various crucial match statistics despite decreased total offsides and yellow cards. These results provide suggestive evidence regarding the mechanisms through which referee bias might contribute to home field advantage and highlight how scope may limit the effectiveness of review processes in general.

A data-driven analysis of the technical and tactical evolution of elite women's football

Currently, most research into the evolution of player performance in women's football has focused on physical performance. In contrast, we lack data-driven research into the technical and tactical developments of the women's game. This paper aims to fill this research gap by analysing an extensive longitudinal dataset containing event data for 3510 matches over eight years in the game's top leagues. It uses analytics techniques to assess changes in technical skills and tactical behaviours in the women's game. Tactically, we observe longer possession sequences and fewer long-distance shots. Technically, we observe that players are completing more difficult and valuable passes at a higher rate, and putting a higher percentage of shots on target, with a particular emphasis on aiming for the corners of the goal. These findings could aid football practitioners to account for the developments of the game.

The Relative Age Effect presents an opportunity for Scottish football to be “better than FC Barcelona”

An overrepresentation of athletes born earlier in the year compared with those born later in the year is known as the relative age effect (RAE). A ten year analysis of professional players across ten of the top European leagues showed the existence of an RAE in the ten years from 2000 (29.3 vs 19.8%, p&lt;0.01) to 2010 (31.9 vs 18.4%, p&lt;0.01) with the RAE becoming more pronounced with time. A sample from the FC Barcelona Model (Doncaster et al., 2020. Front Sports Act Liv, 2, 91) showed a strong RAE within their male football academy in all youth groups becoming less prevalent with increasing age (Q1 Jan-Mar = 0.53 Q2 Apr-Jun = 0.27; Q3 Jul-Sep = 0.14; and Q4 Oct – Dec = 0.06 [χ_3^2= 53.6, p&lt;0.001]). Despite solutions being proposed in the literature, this indicates these solutions are not being utilised effectively within Europe’s top clubs such as FC Barcelona. Our previous work (Craig and Swinton, 2020, Eur J Sports Sci, 21, 1101-1110) identified strong relative age bias in players awarded professional contracts between 2006 and 2016 in a Scottish academy (Q1 = 0.50; Q2 = 0.26; Q3 = 0.20; and Q4 = 0.05 [χ_3^2= 40.9, p&lt;0.001]). Scottish clubs have limited resources in comparison with Barcelona meaning academy efficiency is paramount. The main study aim was therefore to assess any changes in the relative age effect over a ten-year period in an elite Scottish football academy within the academy player pool. A secondary aim was to establish if physical differences exist across each quarter to assess the impact of any potential RAE. Following ethical approval, a retrospective analysis of 512 academy players (from 2006 to 2016) from a Scottish Academy was assessed for anthropometric, physical performance and RAE impact. The range of players in each quarter was Q1 37.0-42.9% versus Q2 22.8-32.4%, Q3 11.9-26.0% and Q4 7.1-14.3%. Odds Ratio analysis indicate a greater chance of selection within the academy when assessing Q1 vs Q4 players quarter comparisons (ranging 3.2-5.2 time more likely to be part of the academy). There was no impact of time on the RAE over the ten years (p=0.3127). When controlling for age group multilevel modelling showed there were no significant differences across quarters in physical measures. Underrepresented Q4 players who transition through academy soccer can match physically their older peers. The finding that there is no improvement in the RAE with time underpins an efficiency that can be integrated. Using established interventions and corrective procedures can ensure no potential is being removed unnecessarily from the development pathway on the basis of RAE, addressing challenges in financially restricted environments such as Scottish football that resource rich environments such as FC Barcelona have not yet overcome.

Self‐Assembled Molecules Fostering Ordered Spatial Heterogeneity for Efficient Ruddlesden‐Popper Perovskite Solar Cells

Abstract2D Ruddlesden‐Popper perovskites (RPP) with formamidinium‐cesium (FAC) alloyed cations possess powerful thermal‐moisture stability. However, their photovoltaic performance is hindered by the elusive spatial heterogeneity at multiscale lengths, highly associated with their coupled charge selective contacts. Herein, it reports on how the rational formation of self‐assembly molecules (SAMs) govern the orderliness of the spatial heterogeneity and crystal growth model in FACs‐RPP films, which is proposed to dictate the charge‐carrier dynamics. Unlike the disordered RPP film driven by the amorphous polymeric contacts, the laterally ordered crystallized SAM contacts facilitate a spatially ordered 2D/3D heterogeneity of FACs‐RPP film in long range, where distinct minor 2D phases are tightly coupled in short range. Such ordered heterogeneity can improve the energy transfer efficiency, facilitating the charge‐carrier dynamics in a well‐aligned 2D/3D landscape is discovered. Finally, the champion solar cells using selective SAM‐based FACs‐RPP films (n = 5) yield an efficiency of 18.85% (certified 18.19%) and excellent damp‐heat/operational stability, ranking in the top league of reported 2D RPP solar cells. More importantly, this SAM‐based principle can be adapted to diverse 2D structures, active areas, and substrate types. This work provides design directions for leveraging bottom‐selective contacts to tune spatial heterogeneity in state‐of‐the‐art 2D RPP optoelectronics.

A payroll efficiency analysis of Europe’s top football leagues

Abstract Accepted by: Ali Emrouznejad Top European football teams have large budgets mainly due to the high wage bills they pay to the players. Therefore, it would be interesting to determine if these football teams are paying inflated salaries considering the sports results that they obtain each season in both national and international competitions. This study focuses on the top five European football leagues (Italian, Spanish, English, French and German). We propose a novel non-convex, non-parametric metafrontier analysis approach to determine whether the football clubs are overpaying their players considering their sporting performance. Goals against in both national and international competitions are modelled as undesirable outputs. Each football team is benchmarked first within its own league and then against all five leagues. From this, apart from estimating the payroll efficiency of each team, the average efficiency of each of these five leagues can also be computed. An exhaustive analysis and discussion of the results is presented using data from three seasons (2020–2023). Some ‘important’ football clubs pay salaries that are not justified by their performance when compared with other, more modest, clubs that pay salaries more in line with the sports results obtained. Ligue 1 is the league that, on average, makes the most efficient use of their payroll, followed by the Bundesliga and, somewhat behind, La Liga and Serie A. The Premier League occupies the last position in terms of average payroll efficiency.

Study of playing styles in the spanish first division of football before, during and after covid-19

Due to the worldwide negative impact on sports caused by the COVID-19. The aim was to analyze the influence of the pandemic on playing styles, measured through the interaction of game indicators, to verify the existence of the home advantage effect at three different time points in the Spanish top professional league. To achieve this, 5320 cases (2660 matches) from the 2014/2015 season to 2020/2021of LaLiga were analyzed. All seasons unfolded normally except for the 2019/2020 season, which experienced a three-month hiatus of inactivity due to the pandemic. During the 2020/2021 season, matches began without spectators or with a limited number of fans to maintain the allowed social distance. A descriptive analysis and classification trees using the CRT technique were performed to identify playing styles. The results showed a simplification of the game throughout the seasons. Visiting teams adapted better to more effective playing styles to achieve better results. These differences may be attributed to rule changes, the total/partial absence of spectators, a three-month inactivity period, and the accumulation of matches in a short period of time. Teams should take into account the different situations analyzed in order to display an effective playing style to achieve their different objectives. Keywords: Notational Analysis; Playing style; Classification tree; Performance indicators.

Self-regulation training improves stress resilience in elite pre-pubescent female gymnasts.

In the context of young female athletes, namely elite gymnasts, effective stress management strategies not only enhance performance, but also reduce the risk of injuries and promote overall well-being. This study aims to investigate the effects of biofeedback-based training on stress management in prepubescent elite female gymnasts, recognizing its pivotal role in promoting healthy growth and proper training load management. Eight elite young female athletes from a top flight French national league club participated in an experimental condition involving four-week biofeedback training program to improve self-regulation skills, during both rest and stress phases. Additionally, each subject experienced a control condition, with entailed exposure to domain-specific motivational videos. Comprehensive evaluations of physiological parameters were conducted to assess the impact of biofeedback training, both before and after the training, as well as during the stress and recovery phases. Furthermore, an interoceptive body awareness test, using the MAIA questionnaire, was performed. The results highlight a significant enhancement of the self-regulatory skills of the gymnasts in managing the selected physiological parameters-peripheral temperature (p < 0.05) and blood volume pressure (p < 0.05)-after the biofeedback treatment. Moreover, psychological data from the MAIA questionnaire revealed a noteworthy increase in interoceptive awareness (p < 0.001), particularly in the subscales of Not Distracting (p < 0.001), Attention regulation (p < 0.05), Emotional awareness (p < 0.05), and Self-regulation (p < 0.05). Thus, we conclude that biofeedback training improves self-regulatory and psychological resilience under stressful conditions, while reducing sensitivity to gymnastics-specific stress.

Wheelchair Basketball Athletes' Participation in Sports: An Examination within the Scope of the Social Model

This study was conducted with the aim of examining the factors that hinder, facilitate, and benefit the participation of wheelchair basketball athletes in sports within the framework of the social model. Employing a phenomenological research design, fitting for the nature of the inquiry, the study utilized qualitative research methods. The sample comprised thirteen (13) wheelchair basketball players competing in the top league in Türkiye. Data collection employed a semi-structured interview format, with face-to-face interviews conducted with the athletes. Thematic analysis was employed to analyze the data, revealing three (3) main themes and twelve (12) sub-themes. Findings suggest that structural barriers pose the most significant hindrance to wheelchair basketball players, while individual facilitators enhance participation, and psychological benefits are predominantly derived from sports engagement. In conclusion, despite encountering numerous inhibiting factors, wheelchair basketball athletes persist in sports participation and attain personal development, facilitated by environmental, structural, and individual factors.

Mimicry of European Football Commentary: Arap Uria’s Comic Lip-Sync Impressions in Kenyan Social Media

ABSTRACT The popularity of football in Africa is evident in the widespread viewership of televised top world league matches across the continent. Entertaining as they are to African fans, the broadcast images raise significant questions regarding the political implications of sports television as a medium for conveying cultural content. The matches are often played in far-off places and feature hardly any African commentators. New media technologies present African users with a host of technological affordances that enable them to challenge the hierarchical logic of industrial media production and the restricted communicative space of sports television. Comedy is a common form of political engagement with televised football images. This article analyses lip-sync impressions by a Kenyan comedian, Arap Uria, who records short parody videos that comment on iconic moments in football matches and posts them on social media platforms. Reading the audiovisual texts as politically motivated comic performances, this article argues that Uria’s lip-sync commentaries are a significant part of the contemporary sports television consumption culture in Kenya. The article discusses the place of the football commentator as a cultural mediator as well as how lip-sync performances can generate protest through artistic truth, remixing and parody.

Starters vs. non-starters differences in vertical jump force-time metrics in female professional volleyball players.

As one of the fundamental volleyball skills, countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) has been commonly implemented in the applied sports setting as a non-invasive and time-efficient assessment of athletes' lower-body neuromuscular function. The purpose of the present study was to examine the differences in CMJ characteristics between starters and non-starters within a cohort of professional female volleyball players. Nineteen athletes competing in one of the top European leagues (i.e., SuperLeague) volunteered to participate in the present investigation. Following the completion of a warm-up protocol, each athlete performed three maximal-effort CMJs with no arm swing while standing on a uni-axial force plate system sampling at 1,000 Hz. The following force-time metrics were used for performance analysis purposes: braking phase duration and impulse, eccentric and concentric duration, mean and peak force and power, contraction time, jump height, and reactive strength index-modified. Mann-Whitney U and independent t-tests revealed no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) during both eccentric and concentric phases of CMJ between the players included in the starting lineup (n = 9) and their substitutions (n = 10), with the effect sizes being small to moderate in magnitude (g = 0.053-0.683). While further research is warranted on this topic, these results suggest that securing a position in a starting lineup at the professional level of volleyball play may be more contingent on the player's ability to proficiently execute sport-specific skills (e.g., blocking, attacking), rather than the performance on the CMJ assessment, considering that the observed values for both groups fall within the desired ranges for this specific population of athletes.

Same game, different worlds? General conditions, perceived stress, and associations between stress and past season injuries in elite female and male ice hockey players.

Ice hockey is played by women and men but the arena they play in may differ substantially. Potential differences in general conditions to play the sport may be associated to perceived stress, which has shown to be related to athletic injury in other sports. Therefore, this study aimed to describe and compare general conditions for playing ice hockey, stress levels, and the association between perceived stress and injury occurrence among elite female and male players. Prior to the 2022-2023 season all female and male players from the top ice hockey leagues in Sweden were invited to an online survey. Players provided information about their general conditions for playing ice hockey and reported perceived stress during the previous season on the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10; sum score range 0-40) and current stress on the Single Item Stress Question (SISQ; scale range 1-5). Injuries during the previous season were self-reported on a modified version of the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center - Overuse Injury Questionnaire. We received responses from 360 players (170 females and 190 males). Female players more frequently reported additional occupations besides ice hockey and less medical support during games and practices than male players (p < .001). General stress levels were significantly higher among female players (mean PSS score [SD]: 17.4 [5.6] vs 14.1 [5.6], p < 0.001; SISQ median [IQR]: 3 [2-3] vs 2 [1-3], p < 0.001). There was a statistically significant but weak correlation between past season injury and perceived stress (PSS score: rho 0.29; SISQ: rho 0.24). This correlation was stronger among males than females (PSS score: 0.38 vs 0.162; SISQ: 0.29 vs 0.16, p's < 0.05). Players with substantial injuries during previous season had higher previous and current stress levels than players without injury, a difference that was largest and statistically significant only among male players. General conditions for playing elite ice hockey are inequal for female and male athletes. Stress levels of elite ice hockey players were comparable to the general population. Experience of severe injuries during the previous season was associated to higher levels of perceived stress. This association is stronger among male players, which may be due to greater economic dependency.