Tons Of Oil Equivalent Research Articles

Models for Energy Efficiency Obligation Systems through different perspectives

As environmental problems such as global warming has become increasingly prevalent, and with the rise in foreign dependence on fossil fuels, energy efficiency and energy saving programs and research have risen. This global focus on energy efficiency has accelerated studies on this subject in order to decrease foreign dependency on fossil fuels, to protect the environment, to minimize the effect of energy costs to national economies, and to assure the energy supply.With increasing population and fast economic development, energy consumption in Turkey has increased significantly. Therefore, current policies need to be updated and additional measures need to be implemented. The Energy Efficiency Strategy document states that Turkey aims to decrease its energy intensity by 20% by 2023, and accordingly new policies and strategies are being carried out in every sector to achieve this result. The uninterrupted, cost-effective, and globally sustainable energy supply is at the heart of national energy policies globally.The Energy Efficiency Obligation Scheme (EEOS) is among the fundamental tools created to increase energy efficiency in the European Union (EU). Many EU countries have successfully implemented EEOS, and further white certificate markets as a central tool for increasing energy efficiency. For example, Italy has seen particularly positive achievements with a white certificate market by avoiding consumption of 6.7 million tons of oil equivalent (TOE).The implementation of National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP) in terms of energy saving was a great step in Turkey. In this document, EEOS has been analyzed in detail.All of these studies are expected to shed light on the energy efficiency liability system to be implemented in Turkey in the future. For this purpose, it is thought that the inclusion of energy service companies into these models will have a positive effect on the success of the system.Within the scope of this study, it has been concluded that energy resources and technologies should have the flexibility to be localized and to resist unexpected changes. Another reason to encourage incentive policies in energy efficiency will be to reduce energy importation.

Advantages of biomass compared to traditional fuels

Given Ukraine's high dependence on imported energy, primarily natural gas, and the availability of great biomass potential, it has been proven that bioenergy is one of the strategic directions of the sector's development in renewable energy sources. It is determined that the pace of bioenergy development in Ukraine still lags significantly behind European ones. It is established, that in the developed countries of the world use of biomass as a source of energy continues to play an important role because of a significant increase in prices for oil and gas, as well as the growing demand for protection of the environment. Therefore, the introduction of modern technologies for continuous energy production from biomass is an important condition for the solution of problems of supply of energy and prevent degradation of the environment. The possibility of using biofuels in the Kyiv region is proved, the investment attractiveness of this region as a source of thermal energy is revealed. The methodical approach to estimating the theoretical potential of waste due to the use of alternative energy sources is substantiated. The theoretical energy potential of the biomass of by-products of agricultural crops of private enterprise "Sosnova" was assessed, which made it possible to determine the prospects of an agricultural enterprise in the energy supply of the Kyiv region at the expense of biofuels. According to the generally accepted method, the theoretical energy potential of straw and vegetable waste of private enterprise "Sosnova" was calculated, which in the market turnover in 2019 amounted to 8392 tons of oil equivalent. It was determined that the predominant type of biomass in the studied enterprise were corn stalks and wheat straw. On the example of the object of the school, which is located near the investigated enterprise, the calculation of savings on heating by replacing the traditional type of fuel (natural gas) with biofuel. The calculations show that due to biofuels the company can provide 28% of the school's need for the heating season. The savings will be - 60.6 thousand UAH and its use allow you to save about 43% of fuel annually.

Simulation Model of Regenerative LNG Refrigeration System for Re-Liquification of BOG

Boil-off gas (BOG) disposal in liquefied natural gas (LNG) tankers has long been considered inevitable owing to the constant vaporization of the LNG in the storage tanks, but results in energy waste and environmental pollution. To address these challenges, we developed a re-liquification system that can condense the BOG and return it to the storage tank. The re-liquification system was modeled, and a case study was conducted to evaluate the viability of the system. The energy waste, which was quantified by tonnes of oil equivalent (TOE), greenhouse-gas emissions in tonnes of carbon dioxide (TCO2), and cost reduction in millions of U.S. dollars (MUSD), was evaluated for five different tanker cruising speeds. The re-liquification system significantly reduced the average TOE, TCO2, and cost by up to 9120.40 TOE/year, 19,474.33 TCO2/year, and 1.9765 MUSD/year, respectively, for five different tanker speeds with multi-stage compression.

Study on the Natural Gas Consumption and its Change Prediction

The global total natural gas consumption has risen to 3.67 trillion cubic meters in 2017 according to BP statistics. It is predicted that natural gas will be “the first one” in all primary energy before 2040. The global natural gas demand is expected to reach 4.9 trillion cubic meters respectively in 2040, accounting for 26.9% in the total primary energy consumption. The natural gas consumption analysis shows that the total consumption in the top twelve natural gas consumption countries accounts for 64.5% of the global. The natural gas consumption in America and Russia exceeded one third of the world in 2015. The gas consumption in BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, and China and South Africa) has risen dramatically since 1980s. After 1990s, the consumption in the Asia-Pacific region has been on the rise, and the cumulative increment took the first place from 1975 to 2015. The Asia-Pacific region is expected to be the new global consumption center after Europe and America. From the point of per capita consumption, North America, the Middle East and former Soviet Union with rich natural gas resources have exceeded to 2 tons of oil equivalent, nevertheless, the less-developed regions such as Asia-Africa-Latin America are below 0.5 ton of oil equivalent. The gas natural consumption in none-OECD countries exceeded that of OECD in 2007, and the gap has increased year by year. However, the per capita consumption of natural gas in OECD is 5.2 times of Non-OECD. The consumption pattern is mainly influenced by economy development, if natural gas production pattern by resource endowment.

Socio-economic and environmental benefits of biofuel production development from agricultural waste in Ukraine

Abstract Energy needs are determined by three main factors: population growth, the economic development of society, and the scientific and technical level of production processes. These needs are increasing year by year in the world and in 2018 they exceeded 13.5 billion tons of oil equivalent. More and more countries are developing and implementing plans and strategies for significant coverage, within 50-100%, of their energy needs through renewable energy sources. The findings of this study revealed that Ukraine’s energy demand per year is 200 million tons of oil equivalent of energy resources. Currently, the share of renewable energy in the structure of energy consumption in Ukraine is 4.4%. The authors also acknowledged that at the same time, 115 million tons of agricultural plant waste and about 97 million tons of animal waste are generated annually in Ukraine, which makes it possible to produce 7.21 million tons of oil equivalent and 2.2 million tons of oil equivalent, respectively from these. The study found that the production of biofuels from agricultural waste will have social, economic and environmental effects. An efficiency matrix was constructed by the authors to determine these effects. Using the SWOT method of analysis, factors that will affect the development of biofuel production from agricultural waste were determined.

Urban resilience through progressive governance: The case of the ‘One Less Nuclear Power Plant’ policy, Seoul, Korea

This article aims to examine how a metropolis like Seoul could be resilient to imminent environmental crisis in the era of climate change. To do so, it conducts a case review of the ‘One Less Nuclear Power Plant’ (OLNPP) policy adopted under the progressive leadership of Mayor Park Won-soon (2011–). The policy was launched in April 2012, with a target of cutting energy use by 2 million tons of oil equivalent (TOE), which is equivalent to the capacity of one nuclear power plant. The target was accomplished in June 2014, six months ahead of schedule. The second phase of OLNPP has been in progress since August 2014 (and is due to complete in 2020). Focusing on its first phase (2012–2014), the article looks into the OLNPP as an experiment for the city’s transition to a resilient energy regime. Following the Introduction, the article reviews the conceptual relationships between risk, resilience and governance in an urban context. This is followed by examination of the background of the OLNPP policy, which was adopted by a progressive leader, and of how the OLNPP as an energy transition project is formulated as geared to enhancing resilience in the city’s energy regime. The next section addresses the progressive mode of governing the implementation of the OLNPP, which leads to resilient energy life, giving rise to a progressive form of city. The conclusion characterises the relationship between the progressivity and resiliency of a new energy system by locating it in a framework of conceptualising a progressive city, while outlining the future of the OLNPP.

Оцінка енергетичного потенціалу біогазу України

On account of the growing interest in the fuel and energy complex of Ukraine to efficient use of renewable energy resources in order to supplement and replace the traditional fossil energy sources, there is a need for an objective analysis and evaluation of available renewable resources to generate the heat and electricity. One such alternative energy source is biogas. The purpose of this work is to evaluate the technically achievable energy potential of biogas of Ukraine, which can be obtained from animal waste and from landfills of solid household waste. The objectives of the study are, first, an analysis of the livestock and poultry population and the mass of municipal solid waste in Ukraine as a resource base for renewable energy sources; second, to calculate the technically achievable energy potential of biogas obtained as a result of the energy conversion of the biomass used. The analysis of the livestock and poultry population and the mass of municipal solid waste shows that the largest number of livestock is kept in farms in Poltava, Cherkasy and Chernihiv regions, the smallest one is in Zakarpattia region. The largest number of pigs in Ukraine is in the Donetsk and Kiev regions, the smallest one is in the Transcarpathian and Luhansk regions. With regard to municipal waste, the largest amount was generated in Kharkiv, Dnipropetrovsk and Kyiv regions, the smallest one is in Kherson, Lugansk and Volyn regions. The biogas energy potential calculations were performed using the mathematical relationships known and adapted to quantify biogas energy potential from animal manure (or poultry manure) and from the organic component of landfills. An estimation of the technically achievable energy potential of biogas (the amount of energy in terms of conventional fuel which can be obtained from the of biomass available for energy conversion in existing energy generating installations with characteristic technical and economic parameters) from the manure of animals or the breeding of poultry their different types (cattle, pigs, chickens) and from solid waste household waste landfills were conducted both in each oblast and in Ukraine as a whole. According to the estimation the technically available energy potential of biogas of Ukraine is 1.6 mln tons of fuel equivalent, or 1.1 mln tons of oil equivalent. The scale of possible utilization of technically available energy potential of biogas by regions of Ukraine is represented by the table 2. Most of all due to the use of this potential it is possible to reduce the consumption of organic fuel in Kharkiv, Vinnitsa, Cherkasy, Dnipropetrovsk and Kyiv regions, where it is 98...269 thousand tons of fuel equivalent, or 69…188 thousand tons of oil equivalent. The prospect of further research is to evaluate the scale of energy use of Ukraine's biomass and to calculate the estimated capacity of future bioenergy plants

Waste Heat Recovery Utilized for an Organic Rankine Cycle in a Steel Hot-Forging Industry

Waste heat recovery in industrial activities is virtually an “energy saving method” which can be introduced into a productive system with successful results as far as technical, economic and environmental aspects are concerned. It is now in fact evident that a careful heat waste management leads not only to primary energy savings, but also to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, often with economic sustainability. The case presented here refers to a steel hot-forging industry situated in the Nord-west of Italy that is equipped with steel hot processing devices, and, in particular, with methane ovens for the hot cutting machines. Therefore, the objective of the present work was to carry out a project aimed at the recovery of the hot flows exiting from the ovens in order to produce electric and thermal power that could be used in the same industrial activity or in tertiary activities near the factory itself. After an in-depth analysis in this technological activity inside the factory concerning the electricity and natural gas consumption and hot gas flow-rate availability, different power plant solutions were considered and evaluated. At the end of the analysis process, the choice fell upon an Organic Rankine Cycle with a power of 50 [kWel]. The technical and economic analysis of this powerplant furnished a pay-back period between the 17th and the 18th year, as far as electrical energy is concerned, which was considered excessively long. An acceptable payback period, that is, of less than ten years, was instead found for the recovery of the thermal power of the ORC plant, which could be utilized, through a remote heating system, for public buildings, such as elementary/primary schools and the City Hall, which are located very close to the factory. In short, with this plant solution, it will be possible to produce more than 150 MWh/year of electric energy and about 600 MWh/year of thermal energy, with a reduction in CO2 emission of around 174 tons per year and also the energy saving, in terms of “Tons of Oil Equivalent”, has been calculated around a mean value of 24 tons/year.

Energy sector of Cameroon

ABSTRACTAs energy issues are at the top of the national policy agenda, policy-makers increasingly need better decision-supporting processes to assist them in fostering a sustainable energy policy. This article aims at supporting the development of energy policy by evaluating the potential, limits and efficiency of energy in Cameroon. The method used is based on the analysis of different forms of energy in Cameroon, through the past trend of energy production and consumption to the current status of Cameroon energetic system. Total energy production and consumption capacity in the country is up to 8.85 Mega tons of oil equivalents (Mtoe) and 5747 kilo tons of oil equivalents (ktoe) respectively. Energy consumption in Cameroon is highly dominated by biomass, followed by petroleum products and electricity; nevertheless, renewable energy is still marginal. Our opinion would be to develop new strategies to shift the energy situation from its present condition to the desired status.

Present Situation and Prospect of Flammable Ice Exploration and Development in Permafrost in China

As the world’s most promising clean and efficient energy, combustible ice has attracted more and more attention from all over the world, and the heat has increased in a geometric series. There is combustible ice in the 27% land and 90% sea areas of the world. The reserves amount to 2×10¹⁶m³, and the carbon content is more than twice of all the proven fossil fuels combined. There have been 79 countries and regions where flammable ice reservoirs have been discovered, and at least 38 permafrost zones have found flammable ice in the land region.The flammable ice in the permafrost is mainly distributed in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, the western plateau and the Greater Xiaoxing’an Mountains in Northeast China. The area is about 215 × 10 ⁴ km ², accounting for 22.4% of the land area, and the amount of resources is about 350 × 10⁸ tons of oil equivalent. The present situation of investigation and research on flammable ice in land area, the present situation of exploration and development in China, the identification technology, drilling technology, logging technology and development technology of flammable ice in land area are summarized. It is pointed out that commercial exploitation of flammable ice in land area is faced with problems such as Greenhouse Effect, geological hazard, environmental effect, laws and regulations, etc. The prospect of exploration and development of flammable ice in land area of China is prospected.

The Impact of Renewable Energy Production on Employment

The aim of the executed research is to determine the influence of harvesting renewable energy on the labour market. Eurostat Databases provided a source of empirical data concerning the amount of produced energy. The number of the employed and the performance of the installed equipment were determined thanks to reports drafted by EurObserv’ER or International Renewable Energy Agency. The following sectors were considered: solid biofuels, biogas, liquid biofuels, geothermal, hydropower, municipal waste, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal and wind power. The research concerned 28 member states of the EU between 2009 and 2015. Such a scope was established due to significant changes on the renewable energy market triggered by the Climate and Energy Package passed by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. The number of the working people (directly in the enterprises operating in the field of producing raw energy materials and energy from renewable sources, as well as providing equipment and services within this field) in relation to 1 000 tonnes of oil equivalent of the primary energy obtained in particular sectors of renewable energy sources was used as the performance indicator. Panel estimation was used as means of empirical indication of relations between the variables.

The impacts of urbanization on Chinese households' energy consumption: An energy input-output analysis

Since China's economic reforms and opening-up policy in 1980, China has experienced significant urbanization. This rapid urbanization has stimulated the growth of energy consumption. To investigate the impacts of urbanization on Chinese households' energy consumption, this paper analyzed the changes in households' direct energy consumption (DEC) and calculated households' indirect energy consumption (IEC) based on an energy input-output model. By applying an input-output structure decomposition analysis model, this paper quantitatively measured the impacts of urbanization on the direct and indirect energy consumption of households in China. We found that the amount of China's urban households' DEC gradually increased from 48.7 million tons of oil equivalent to 185.2 million tons of oil equivalent. In 2012, the proportion of coal products in urban households' DEC decreased from 91.4% in 1980 to 24.3%, while the proportion of petroleum products, natural gas, and electricity in urban households' DEC increased. During 1980 to 2012, China's rural households' DEC increased from 36.7 million tons of oil equivalent to 121.5 million tons of oil equivalent. However, the proportion of coal products was still greater than 50% in 2012. Chinese households' IEC increased from 302.8 million tons of oil equivalent in 1987 to 769.9 million tons of oil equivalent in 2010. In addition, China's urban households' IEC had a faster growth rate than China's rural households' IEC. Urban households' IEC increased from 139.0 million tons in 1987 to 599.8 million tons in 2010, while rural households' IEC fluctuated during the same period, with 163.8 million tons in 1987, 132.2 million tons in 2000, and 170.1 million tons in 2010. Among the impact factors of households' DEC, which include the population, urbanization rate, urban/rural households' DEC per capita and urban/rural households' DEC structure, China's total population has a positive effect on households' DEC growth. The urbanization rate is the other important factor constantly stimulating China's households' DEC growth. For households' IEC, the urbanization rate and per capita consumption had positive effects on the increase in households' IEC. Except for the period from 2002 to 2005, direct energy intensity had a negative effect on the increase in households' IEC in other periods. The Leontief effect on households' IEC was positive from 2000 to 2005 and negative in other subperiods. The results indicate that China needs to integrate energy efficiency, ecological conservation, and social fairness in its “new-type urbanization” planning. Green lifestyles within the household and low-carbon city construction should be encouraged.

ASSESSMENT OF THE RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL IN THE REPUBLIC OF ADYGEYA

The paper presents assessment of the renewable energy potential in the Republic of Adygeya. The territory of the Republic of Adygeya, thanks to its geographical location, natural characteristics, economic specialization, has significant gross and technical potentials of renewable energy resources. It is the most preferable region for the development of solar energy. The gross potential of solar energy for the territory of the Republic of Adygeya is 1.3 billion TOE (Tons of Oil Equivalent) and the technical potential is 6.4 million TOE for the production of heat and 0.5 billion TOE for electricity production. The gross potential of wind energy in the Republic of Adygeya is 1862 billion kWh/yr, or 633 million TOE per year. The gross potential of hydraulic energy of small rivers is 7–9.65 billion kWh and the technical potential is 2.2–3.15 billion kWh. The analysis of geothermal conditions on the territory close to Maykop confirmed the possibility of the usage of thermal water for the city’s public and industrial heat supply.

A sustainable energy for greenhouses heating in Italy: wood biomass

More than 0.7 million ton of oil equivalent is the total requirement for thermal energy in the Italian greenhouse vegetable industry, derived mostly from fossil fuels, which corresponds to 2 Mt CO2 emissions. The technology of wood biomass system is a good candidate for heating greenhouses, since this resource is considered as 'greenhouse gas' (GHG) neutral when converted to heat, excluding the GHG generation during harvesting, transportation, and pre-processing of raw materials. Besides, the CO2 enrichment in greenhouses from the exhaust gas of a biomass heating system can bring benefits for greenhouse production, along with optimal management strategies to reduce fuel consumption. Unfortunately, CO2 enrichment from the exhaust gas of biomass boilers is still challenging and expensive, considering that wood biomass boilers generate a higher volume of particulate matters (PM) and ash emissions than other fossil fuels. However, wet scrubbers and other recent flue gas conditioning devices could help to reduce costs and make this process more feasible. In the Italian peninsula, the power energy load for greenhouses heating was estimated to be between 30 and 175 W m-2, while the thermal energy consumption varies between 21 to 546 kWh m-2 year-1 according with internal air temperature and climatic zones. In general, the total cost of a heating system with boiler, loading system, accumulator, control system and safety, installation, and heat delivering can vary from a maximum of 1400 € kW-1 for systems with power up to 100 kW, 600-800 € kW-1 for power over 100 kW, to a minimum of 400 € kW-1 for systems with power over 1000 kW. Thus, a techno-economic assessment is highly recommended to ascertain the economic feasibility of wood biomass boilers for the greenhouse industry, as related to the economic incentives by the National Decree of 28 December 2012, so-called “White Certifies”.

Volume and Mass Measurement of a Burning Wood Pellet by Image Processing

Wood pellets are a form of solid biomass energy and a renewable energy source. In 2015, the new and renewable energy (NRE) portion of wood pellets was 4.6% of the total primary energy in Korea. Wood pellets account for 6.2% of renewable energy consumption in Korea, the equivalent of 824,000 TOE (ton of oil equivalent, 10 million kcal). The burning phases of a wood pellet can be classified into three modes: (1) gasification; (2) flame burning and (3) charcoal burning. At each wood pellet burning mode, the volume and weight of the burning wood pellet can drastically change; these parameters are important to understand the wood pellet burning mechanism. We developed a new method for measuring the volume of a burning wood pellet that involves no contact. To measure the volume of a wood pellet, we take pictures of the wood pellet in each burning mode. The volume of a burning wood pellet can then be calculated by image processing. The difference between the calculation method using image processing and the direct measurement of a burning wood pellet in gasification mode is less than 8.8%. In gasification mode in this research, mass reduction of the wood pellet is 37% and volume reduction of the wood pellet is 7%. Whereas in charcoal burning mode, mass reduction of the wood pellet is 10% and volume reduction of the wood pellet is 41%. By measuring volume using image processing, continuous and non-interruptive volume measurements for various solid fuels are possible and can provide more detailed information for CFD (computational fluid dynamics) analysis.

Biomass energy potential and utilization in Turkey

Biomass is the most widely used renewable energy source in the world today. It is used mostly in solid form and, to a lesser extent, in the form of liquid fuels and gas. The utilization of biomass for energy production has increased at only a modest rate in modern times. Biomass is the major source of energy in rural Turkey. Biomass is used to meet a variety of energy needs, including generating electricity, heating homes, fueling vehicles and providing process heat for industrial facilities. Biomass potential includes wood, animal and plant wastes. Among the biomass energy sources, fuel wood seems to be the most interesting because its share of the total energy production of Turkey is high at 14%. The total biomass energy potential of Turkey is about 33 million tons of oil equivalents (Mtoe). The amount of usable biomass potential of Turkey is approximately 17 Mtoe. The electrical production potential from usable bioenergy sources are 73 MW in 2010 and corporate income and represent more than 280,000 jobs. This study shows that there is important biomass energy potential for climate change mitigation and energy sustainability in Turkey.

Energy efficiency in the transport sector in the EU-27: A dynamic dematerialization analysis

Energy use in the European Union's (EU) transport sector amounted to 340Mtoe11Mtoe=megatoe (one million toe). Toe — ton of oil equivalent. in 1999 with the following increasing trend up to 379Mtoe in 2007 and a decrease from 2008 on, down to 365Mtoe in 2010. This changing pattern posed several fundamental questions and uncertainties regarding the broader picture of energy efficiency and environmental protection. One of them refers to absolute changes in energy use efficiency in the transport sector over time and the ways of measuring efficiency. Traditional scientific approaches conceptualized to measure efficiency of energy use do not address annual dynamics of changes in the energy use in a given sector per capita. Thus, they are not precise enough for political and methodological purposes as they do not reflect the exact amount of energy consumed in the respective countries and societies.This paper shows a possible solution to this problem and a new perspective on measuring energy efficiency by using the product generational dematerialization (PGD) indicator. The PGD indicator allows for measuring energy efficiency as a dynamic change of consumption and population occurring simultaneously. Thus, it provides an extension to the traditional methodology commonly used for measuring efficiency. To visualize a practical application of this approach, the paper provides an example of evaluating energy efficiency in the transport sector in the EU-27 in 2000–2010. The results of the analysis show a clear materialization tendency in the transport sector (the energy consumption change exceeded the population growth) until 2007 and a reverse tendency (dematerialization) between 2008 and 2010.As energy consumption has a direct impact on environmental quality and exhaustion of natural resources, the paper points out the necessity of extending sustainable resource management policies by new methodologies and providing more efficient solutions for energy consumption in the transport sector.

Review of fossil fuels and future energy technologies

Fossil fuels production peaks, declines and depletions depend on their proved reserves, exploration and consumption rates. Worldwide proven oil, gas and coal reserves are 1688billion barrels (Bb), 6558trillion cubic feet (TCF) and 891billion tons (Bt) being consumed at rates of 0.092Bb, 0.329TCF and 7.89BT per day, respectively. The oil, gas and coal reserves are increasing at the rate of 600million barrels (Mb), 400billion cubic feet (BCF) and 19.2Giga tons of oil equivalents (GTOE) per year. While the rate of annual increase in consumption of oil, gas and coal is 1.4Mb, 4.5BCF and 3.1million tons (Mt). Global annual energy demand of over 12billion tons of oil equivalent (BTOE) results in the emission of 39.5Giga tons of carbon dioxide (Gt-CO2), and the annual CO2 emission would increase up to 75 Gt-CO2 when future energy demand will rise to 24–25BTOE. Oil, gas and coal may continue to exist for next several decades, yet the energy transition to low carbon intensity fuels is necessary to cope with rampant climate change. Renewable and alternative energy sources hold key to the solution of twin problems, energy and climate change, with a high initial investment. Transition from fossil fuels to sustainable and renewable energy resources of 150Petawatt hours (PWh) requires major investment and innovatory technologies. Perhaps CO2 and H2O based fuel systems would facilitate climate change and grand energy transition. An energy mix consisting of fossil fuels, hydrogen, bio-fuels, and renewable energy sources seems to be a good initiative. This paper reviews evidence of hydrocarbons decline scenarios and timelines of future energy technologies.

Embodied energy, export policy adjustment and China's sustainable development: A multi-regional input-output analysis

China has surpassed the United States to be the world's largest energy consumer, but a lot of energy was used to produce products for exporting to other countries. Presently, China faces a great challenge in energy security and environmental protection. This paper focuses on the energy embodied in China's foreign trade with a multi-regional input–output approach. Three versions of the GTAP (Global Trade Analysis Project) database were used to capture the trend and distribution of the embodied energy flows for China during 2001–2007. The results indicate that the energy embodied in the global trade is increasing rapidly, growing faster than the total direct energy exported in the same period. China is shown as an energy exporter in terms of embodied energy, and the embodied energy trade surplus increased from 156 million tons of oil equivalents (Mtoe) in 2001 to 514 Mtoe in 2007, with a proportion of domestic energy consumption increased from 14% to 23%. This paper also studies the effects of the energy-intensive industry restrictive export policy of China, and we find that this policy could reduce the national energy consumption and promote industrial structure upgrades effectively. However, the expansion of energy-intensive industries in other countries may reduce China's efforts for global energy saving and global warming alleviation. Our simulation shows that carbon leakage is about 50%.

Building Energy Consumption in Malaysia: An Overview

Buildings consume up to 40% of the total global energy. By the year 2030, the consumption is expected to increase to 50%. In Malaysia, buildings consume a total of 48% of the electricity generated in the country. Commercial buildings consume up to 38,645 Giga watts (GWh) while Residential buildings consume 24,709 Gwh. Demand for electricity in the country is expected to rise from 91,539 GWh in the year 2007 to 108,732 GWh in 2011. By the year 2020, the energy demand in Malaysia is expected to reach 116 Million tons of oil equivalents (Mtoe). Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission in the country has increased by 221% ,which lists the nation at 26th among the top 30 greenhouse gas emitters in the world. Literature studies indicate more than 50% of this energy is used in buildings for occupants comfort (air conditioning and refrigeration). Energy consumptions by residential occupants can be minimized if energy usage is considered. This paper aimed at reviewing some literatures on energy consumption in the residential buildings in Malaysia and suggests ways of improving the energy usage by the occupants.