Tonne Kilometres Research Articles

Exploring the equity in allocating carbon offsetting responsibility for international aviation

This paper compares the offsetting responsibilities of countries under the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) and four equity principles, that is, historical responsibility (HR), ability to pay (AP), equal per capita emissions (EP), and emissions intensity (EI). We also use the method of preference score compromise (PSC) to design a commonly acceptable compromise mechanism. We find that, first, the USA, the UAE and China will be affected most if the mechanism is changed from CORSIA to another. Second, CORSIA is a good choice for the USA, Germany, France, and Australia, while other countries with the highest revenue tonne kilometers in international aviation may have strong motivations to change from CORSIA to AP or EP. Third, EI does not bring the lowest cumulative offsetting costs for any country, but is most similar to the compounding mechanism under PSC. Finally, some policy implications are provided.

An ex-ante analysis of transport impacts of a distance-based heavy goods vehicle charge in the Netherlands

In 2017, the newly installed Dutch government announced in its coalition agreement to introduce a distance-based heavy goods vehicle charge, similar to the charges levied in other European countries. To study the possible transport impacts, we applied available models and methods in preparation for the introduction of this truck charge in the Netherlands in 2023, in order to present decision information to the government on different aspects of the charge. In this paper we present the analysis of different implementation scenarios for a distance-based truck charge. Different behavioural responses can be expected in terms of freight transport demand, mode choice, logistic efficiency, and route choice. Many studies however lack sufficient detail to properly describe the impact of road charges for HGV on OD flows and freight traffic. In our contribution we explore the bandwidth of impacts of different pricing schemes, using strategic transport models for freight demand and traffic assignment, with detailed modal split and route choice models, ensuring a proper representation of generalsed transport costs. We explain how we use available transport models in an overarching analytical framework to make a comprehensive impact assessment of the different responses, and to decompose the impacts on the different responses. Final impacts are quantified in terms of freight demand (spatial pattern of transport flows), modal split and traffic flows (route choice, and congestion).Depending on the pricing scenario the tonne kilometres decrease by 0.4%–4.8% on average. The modal shift impacts are stronger on longer transport distances: this is explained both by the larger impact of a distance-based charge on these routes, and by higher substitution possibilities to barge or rail. The results indicate that the overall impacts of the introduction of the different charging alternatives are moderate. However, the network impacts at local level can be substantial due to the impact of re-routing of truck trips to avoid charge.

ASSESSING THE CARBON FOOTPRINT OF A DEDICATED ALL-CARGO AIRLINE: THE CASE OF CARGOLUX INTERNATIONAL AIRLINES

The objective of this study was to examine Cargolux International Airlines, one of the world’s largest dedicated all-cargo airlines, carbon footprint and to identify how it has been influenced by its route network expansion and the operation of the next-generation, Boeing B747-8 freighter aircraft. The study covered the period 2005 to 2018. To achieve the objectives of the study, an in-depth qualitative longitudinal case study research approach was used. The data that was sourced for the study was examined using document analysis. The study found that Cargolux International Airlines annual carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions increased from 2,845,000 tonnes in 2005 to 4,093, 521 tonnes in 2018. The increase in the airline’s annual carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is due to a higher level of services, route network expansion, and an increase its fleet of freighter aircraft. Over the study period, Cargolux’s annual carbon dioxide emissions (CO2) per available tonne kilometre (ATK) exhibited a downward trend, decreasing from a high of 386.5 grams per available tonne kilometre (ATK) in 2006 to a low of 330.8 grams per available tonne kilometre (ATK) in 2018. A similar trend occurred with the airline’s annual carbon dioxide emissions (CO2) per freight tonne kilometre (FTK), which decreased from a high of 540 grams per freight tonne kilometre (FTK) in 2011 to a low of 330.8 grams per available freight tonne kilometre (FTK) in 2017. These trends were very favourable given the expansion in services and in enplaned air cargo tonnages throughout the study period. The case study revealed that the airline’s fleet rollover plan, in which Cargolux acquired a fleet of 14 state-of-the art Boeing B747-8 freighters, has resulted in the most substantial reductions in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The more favourable fuel efficiency of this aircraft results in lower carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions for their operators. In addition to operating a modern fuel-efficient fleet, Cargolux has implemented a very broad range of measures and initiatives that are designed to mitigate its carbon footprint from both its flight and ground operations. 
 
 

The failure analysis of the drilling rig hoisting steel wire rope

Drilling rigs belong to the lowest-safety level of hoisting rope systems. The valid regulation for drilling permits the usage of steel ropes on condition that their permanent safety does not decrease under the value 2.5. Considerable dynamic and cyclic stresses, abrasion and corrosive environment generated during the operation cause rapid fatigue and rope damage. The stress of the rope in operation leads to the specific precautions ensuring the safety rope work. The specific precautions include monitoring of the rope tractive work measured in tonne-kilometres (ton-kilometres services). The working part of the hoisting ropes of the drilling rigs - after the stated number of tonne kilometres was worked off - is slipped and a regular non-destructive rope test (NDT) is recommended. Rope under sizing, failing in rope slipping program and non- implementation of NDT controls led to the situations endangering the drilling crew safety. After the critical situations the operator decided to perform the analysis of the condition of all ropes.

Costs and capabilities of innovative concepts of long and heavy vehicles in Germany

Within the innovative concept of truck platooning vehicles are coupled digitally to vehicle combinations. This can contribute to increase productivity in the road haulage industry. Quite a few field trials have been conducted. Within the European modular concept vehicles are coupled physically to modular vehicle combinations with increased dimensions. This can also contribute to increase productivity in the road haulage industry. It is introduced in Sweden and Finland, field trials have been conducted in Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany.The purpose of the paper is to compare structural differences of cost cuttings of truck platooning and modular vehicle combinations if they were introduced in Germany. The comparison is based on several basic models, a highly automated truck platoon, a fully automated truck platoon, the Lang-Lkw in Germany with a maximum allowed mass (MAM) of 40 t, and the initial Swedish modular vehicle combination with a MAM of 60 t. Major criteria are the cost cuttings per tonne kilometre related to the productivity of the drivers, the fuel consumption, and the necessary technical equipment.There seem to be cost advantages of the European modular concept. Though, the concept is limited to a dedicated road network. Advantages of truck platooning seem to be linked to their flexible formation but limited due to the necessity of decoupling due to the design of the infrastructure and in heavy traffic.

TOWARDS MEETING THE IATA-AGREED 1.5% AVERAGE ANNUAL FUEL EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS BETWEEN 2010 AND 2020: THE CURRENT PROGRESS BEING MADE BY U.S. AIR CARRIERS

The purpose of this paper is to see if airlines in general, and U.S. air-carriers in particular, are meeting their IATA-agreed 1.5% average annual fuel efficiency improvements between 2010 and 2020. To assess the fuel efficiency performance, a quantitative analysis was performed using data provided by ICAO, IATA and the U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS) Form 41 Schedules P 12(a) and T-2. The metric used to assess fuel efficiency is the one advanced by ICAO, namely Litres per Revenue Tonne Kilometre performed. Trends are examined over an extended timeframe to establish annual fuel efficiency improvements. The findings show that the overall performance of U.S. air-carriers from 2010 to 2018 has just met IATA’s 1.5% target with a 1.52% year-upon-year annual fuel efficiency improvement, with domestic operations showing a greater level of improvement than international operations. Such performance suggests that the U.S.A, and by inference, the rest of the world, are just likely to meet their IATA target by 2020. This achievement has largely been made possible through industry’s tremendous efforts to enhance aircraft engine technologies, implement operational improvements, and reduce airframe weight through the extensive application of composite materials.

The Role of Freighter Aircraft in a Full-Service Network Airline Air Freight Services: The Case of Qantas Freight

<p>The dedicated all-cargo aircraft market is vital to the global economy. Freighter aircraft now carry around 56 per cent of world air cargo traffic. Using an in-depth case study research design, this study examined the Qantas Freight Boeing B747-400 and B767-300 freighter aircraft route network design during the 2017/2018 Northern Winter Flight schedule period, which was in effect from the 29th October 2017 to March 24th, 2018. The qualitative data were examined by document analysis. The study found that Qantas Freight deploy their leased B747-400 freighter aircraft on a route network that originates in Sydney and incorporates key markets in Thailand and China with major markets in the United States. The Boeing B767-300 freighter aircraft operated 5 services per week on a Sydney/Auckland/Christchurch/Sydney routing as a well as a weekly Sydney/Hong Kong/Sydney service. The Boeing B747-400 freighter services could generate 114,755,020 available freight tonne kilometres (AFTKs) over the schedule period. The Boeing B767-300 freighter aircraft could generate 46,974,1440 AFTKs. The Qantas Freight route network and freighter fleet is underpinned by Australia’s liberalized freighter aircraft policy, the “Open Skies” agreement between Australia and China – which permits the onward carriage of cargo traffic across the trans-Pacific – and the liberalized “open skies” agreement with New Zealand.</p>

Railway usage charges based on marginal maintenance costs

The study reported here focused on finding a charging model for using regional railway lines. Due to geographical and technological characteristics, such lines are neglected and unused yet have great potential, especially for freight transport. The goal of the research was to calculate marginal maintenance costs of regional rail lines using an econometric cost function model. The econometric model was estimated using the least-squares method. The charges were calculated based on marginal costs and gross tonne kilometres (grt.km) and a comparison was made with the existing model for calculating charges. The grt.km calculation resulted in a charge lower than that calculated using the existing model, resulting in positive economic effects for carriers. The results of the proposed model are also in line with European transport policy objectives that strive to increase rail freight transport and redirect the flow of goods from road to rail, thus significantly lowering external costs.

Comparison Analysis of Airline Energy Efficiency Under Weak Disposability and Strong Disposability Using a Virtual Frontier Slack–Based Measure Model

ABSTRACTIn this article, the energy efficiency of airlines has been studied with number of employees, capital stock, and tons of aviation kerosene as the inputs and revenue tonne kilometers, revenue passenger kilometers, total business income, and CO2 emission as the outputs. Two new models, Virtual Frontier SBM (slack-based measure) with strong disposability and Virtual Frontier SBM with weak disposability, are proposed to calculate the energy efficiencies of 22 airlines from 2008 to 2012. We prove two important properties of Virtual Frontier SBM, which can show its advantages over traditional model. The main findings are (1) Scandinavian Airlines has the largest average energy efficiency in the period both in strong disposability and weak disposability; and (2) CO2 emission has significant impacts on energy efficiency change in strong disposability, while it has little impact in weak disposability.

Airline efficiency measures using a Dynamic Epsilon-Based Measure model

In this paper, we focus on measuring airline dynamic efficiency. Number of Employees and Aviation Kerosene are chosen as the inputs. Revenue Tonne Kilometers, Revenue Passenger Kilometers and Total Revenue are the outputs. Capital Stock is selected as the dynamic factor. A new model, Dynamic Epsilon-Based Measure (DEBM) model, is proposed to evaluate the dynamic efficiencies of 19 airlines from 2009 to 2014. The main findings are: 1. Scandinavian, Emirates and Cathay Pacific are the benchmarking airlines among the 19 airlines. 2. The highest efficiency change index happens in 2010, which has close relationships with the financial crisis of 2008. 3. The output-oriented DEBM and non-oriented DEBM do well in reflecting the efficiency differences, while the input-oriented DEBM and output-oriented DEBM have good performance in mirroring yearly efficiency change.

IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT OF INDUSTRIAL PACKAGING WASTE TRANSPORT

Industrial packaging waste as an object of reverse logistics has nowadays from environmental and cost perspective become a huge task especially in retail. In addition to that most costs come from transportation, which if not rationalized leads to negative environmental impacts. The research consists out of two parts, where the first part provides an overview of domestic and foreign literature in the field of environmental impacts caused by transportation of packaging waste in retail and, the second part is an analysis of packaging waste transportation in the largest Slovenian retailer. Finally, the findings and suggestions are presented. In this analysis we wanted to put forward any potential solutions that could improve the existing system environmental performance, by reducing environmental impacts. A conclusion of our analysis has shown that with system reorganization we could significantly reduce the amount of tonne kilometres by 55 % and therefore lower the fuel emissions.

The role of dedicated freighter aircraft in the provision of global airfreight services

In 2014, over 51 million tonnes of cargo, valued at over US$6.8 trillion, was flown around the world. Approximately 56% of this total (by global revenue tonne kilometres (RTKs)) was flown on dedicated freighter aircraft which were either manufactured specifically for this purpose or converted from passenger use. The remaining 44% (by total global RTK) travelled as belly-freight in the holds of passenger flights or on combi (combination) or QC (quick change) aircraft that can accommodate both passengers and freight. Although both sources of capacity offer the same basic service – the aerial carriage of time sensitive and/or high value-to-weight goods – they exhibit different cost structures, operating characteristics and spatial patterns of demand and supply. Using empirical data on the contemporary scale and scope of global freighter operations, this paper examines the role of dedicated freighter aircraft in the provision of global airfreight services and identifies a range of exogenous and internal factors which may affect the demand and supply side characteristics of all-cargo air services in the future.

Analysis of the recent evolution of commercial air traffic CO2 emissions and fleet utilization in the six largest national markets of the European Union

This paper presents the results of a study performed to analyze the evolution of commercial air traffic and CO2 emissions in the European Union, from 2010 to 2013. Data sources are the European Commission's Eurostat Air Transport Statistics (Eurostat) and EUROCONTROL flight plans database. The changes in the fuel efficiency are analyzed and the potential reasons for those changes investigated. The evolution in the airline fleet composition during the last decade is presented as one of the reasons for the improvement in fuel efficiency, measured in burnt fuel per total Revenue Tonne Kilometre (RTK), as well as the different parameters depending on the airline business model (network carriers, low cost companies, etc.) and the aircraft type.Results show a slight reduction in the traffic, both for passengers and cargo (about −0.8%), and a more important reduction in CO2 emissions (−4.3%), thanks to an improvement in the fuel efficiency parameter (−3.5%) for the three years period. There has been a relevant change in the fleet composition in the last ten years, with the replacement of older models for more efficient ones, and a shift to larger aircraft, particularly in the regional segment. Traffic has decreased in shorter distances (internal EU traffic), but increased in more efficient long range flights (extra-EU traffic), resulting also in an improvement of the efficiency parameter as average aircraft size and stage length increases.

Energy efficiency measures for airlines: An application of virtual frontier dynamic range adjusted measure

In this paper, the energy efficiency of airlines is measured. Number of employees and tons of aviation kerosene are chosen as the inputs. Revenue tonne kilometers, revenue passenger kilometers, and total business income are the outputs. Capital stock is selected as the dynamic factor. A new model, Virtual Frontier Dynamic range adjusted measure (RAM), is proposed to calculate the energy efficiencies of 22 airlines from 2008 to 2012. In Virtual Frontier Dynamic RAM, the reference DMU (decision-making unit) set and the evaluated DMU set are two different sets to distinguish between efficient DMUs. The results demonstrate the following: (1) Air Greenland exhibits the highest energy efficiency, while the efficiency score of Air France-KLM is at the bottom of the 22 airlines. (2) Aggregate airline energy efficiency consistently increased from 2008 to 2012.

PORÓWNANIE EMISJI DWUTLENKU WĘGLA DLA RÓŻNYCH RODZAJÓW TRANSPORTU

Summary. This article presents a comparison of carbon dioxide emission during passengers and freight transporting by different transport modes. Because of significant diversity of transport means, the emissions expressed in grams per passenger kilometre or tonne kilometre were compared. Available data published in references were used to achieve this goal. The comparison revealed significant differences between transport modes as well as inside them, between transport means. High CO2 emission during aircrafts takeoff caused a necessity to take into account the flight distance for the air transport.

Does rail freight market liberalisation lead to market entry? A case study of the British privatisation experience

This paper considers developments since privatisation in the British rail freight market from both general and production supply side perspectives. It also reviews the literature relating to the US railroad partial deregulation in order to identify the main effects and drivers that result from major industry reform. What it finds is that privatisation of the railways in Great Britain has not been followed by the expected dramatic rise in rail freight carriage and more specifically in the provision of intermodal services. Overall tonne kilometres and domestic intermodal have risen considerably, however in both cases for (different) reasons that do not suggest real industry progress. New entrants to the industry have been few, and the sector has now reached a point of apparent stagnation. The research finds little evidence of prohibitive production characteristics in terms of scale and productivity effects, and therefore these cannot be viewed as being responsible for the lack of new entry and general industry progress. Such ‘barriers’ to progress therefore can only be related to demand, i.e. the economics of consumption. The over-riding conclusion is that key to future growth in the sector is continued productivity improvements and a more pro-active policy stance.

Direct and cross elasticities for freight distribution access charges: Empirical evidence by vehicle class, vehicle kilometres and tonne vehicle kilometres

This paper uses data collected in Australia in 2010–2011 on alternative access charge regimes for freight transport, obtained from a stated choice experiment, which is used in estimation of mixed logit models calibrated on vehicle market shares, to derive matrices of direct and cross access charging elasticities that represent the relationship between an access charge (defined by combinations of distance, mass, and location), vehicle class choice, total kilometres, and tonne–kilometres carried in the vehicle class segments. The elasticities can be used to estimate the response of heavy vehicle operators (and shippers) to price signals under the different access charging schemes.

Changes in the external costs of freight surface transport In Spain

This paper studies the external costs of surface freight transport in Spain and finds that a reduction occurred over the past15 years. The analysis yields two conclusions: trucks have experienced a reduction in external costs, and rail has lower externalities. The external costs of road freight transport decrease between 1993 and 2007 (44%). The external costs of rail freight increase by 12%. During this period, the external costs of road freight related to climate increase by 16%, oppositely than those from air pollution and accidents (51 and 44%). The external costs of rail related to pollutant emissions and climate increase by 4% and 43%. Oppositely, the external costs related to accidents decrease by 27%. Road freight generates eight times the external costs of rail, 2.35 Euro cents per tonne kilometre in 2005 (5.6% accidents, 74.7% air pollution and 19.7% climate) vs. 0.28 (13.4% accidents, 53.9% air pollution and 32.7% climate).

ASSESSING THE EFFICIENCY OF LITHUANIAN TRANSPORT SECTOR BY APPLYING THE METHODS OF MULTIMOORA AND DATA ENVELOPMENT ANALYSIS

This study focuses on evaluating Lithuanian transport sector throughout 1995–2009 by applying multi–criteria decision making method MULTIMOORA (Multi–Objective Optimization plus the Full Multiplicative Form) and data envelopment analysis (DEA). MULTIMOORA provided ranks that enabled to perform time series analysis, whereas DEA made possible to identify both technical and scale inefficiencies. Due to limited data availability, we analyzed the transport sector as a whole, i. e. it was not decomposed into that of land, air, railway or water. Although every production factor, including labour, capital and land is required for developing the transport sector, due to limited data availability, it is not possible to tackle them all when performing analysis. Consequently, one input, namely energy consumption in transport, was considered in the conducted analysis. On the other hand, two forms of transport – passenger and freight transport – were distinguished, and each of them was measured using composite indicators of passenger and tonne kilometres respectively. These two indices were considered as the outputs of transport sector activity. The final ranks provided by MULTIMOORA indicate that the transport sector was operating most effectively during 2004–2008, whereas it exhibited relative inefficiency throughout 1996–1998. The application of DEA suggests that the efficiency downturn of 1996–1998 might have been caused by technical inefficiency, whereas that of 2008–2009 was driven by scale inefficiency. Indeed, the technical modernization of the transport sector as well as the resolution of resource allocation problems might have lead to an increase in technical efficiency. Meanwhile, economic downturn prevents the transport system from working at full capacity; hence, scale efficiency is still observed.

Identifying sources of systematic variation in direct price elasticities from revealed preference studies of inter-city freight demand

Freight demand elasticity studies vary significantly in terms of the demand measure, data type, estimation method, commodity type, etc. This wide variation makes it difficult to compare empirical estimates when the differences may arise in part from the methods and data used. In this paper we conduct a comparative analysis to identify systematic sources of influence on direct price elasticity estimates in the context of freight transport, distinguishing between road, rail, and sea transport, using published direct price elasticities from 12 elasticity-derivative studies from five countries. The study focuses on revealed preference elasticities defined by the freight rate for tonnes and tonne kilometres of inter-city freight movements. Systematic sources that explain differences in direct price elasticities include the demand elasticity measure, mode, commodity class, model estimation form, country, and temporal nature of data (e.g., cross-section). Analysts can utilise the model outputs to adjust the empirical evidence from specific studies to control for differences that impact on the behavioural implications of comparative evidence.