Tolerance Policies Research Articles

Reconsidering State Variation in Incarceration Rates

AbstractState incarceration rates have been a topic of much policy discussion. One notable issue missing from much of the literature concerns the various determinants that account for state differences in incarceration rates. Why are some states more or less likely to incarcerate their citizenry than other states? The article examines the 50 states in a cross‐sectional state comparative model. Using a dependent variable of state incarceration rates, we offer and test several explanatory models, including socioeconomic factors, political explanations, social control mechanisms, and structural factors. We find that socioeconomic explanations to be the most robust, but we find varying degrees of support for each of our four models.Related ArticlesGarrett, Terence Michael. 2020. “The Security Apparatus, Federal Magistrate Courts, and Detention Centers as Simulacra: The Effects of Trump's Zero Tolerance Policy on Migrants and Refugees in the Rio Grande Valley.” Politics & Policy 48 (2): 372‐395. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12348Mitchell, Joshua L., and Adam M. Butz. 2019. “Social Control Meets New Public Management: Examining the Diffusion of State Prison Privatization, 1979‐2010.” Politics & Policy 47 (3): 506‐544. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12309Morris, John C. 2007. “Government and Market Pathologies of Privatization: The Case of Prison Privatization.” Politics & Policy 35 (2): 318‐341. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747‐1346.2007.00062.x

Frontiers of American Vengeance: The Frontier Thesis, the Zero Tolerance Policy, and the Interpersonal Process of Creative Shame

During the Spring of 2018, the United States Federal Government, in accordance with its new Zero Tolerance immigration policy, separated at least 2,654 infants and children from their parents at its southern border. This was done with no plans for reuniting these families which, in many cases, has proven extremely difficult if not impossible. These acts echo the vengeance that occurred on the original American Frontier and included the Native-American genocide. Although the specifics and severities greatly differ, the psychodynamics and related processes are similar. Also, certain associated national foundational myths of American exceptionalism and Manifest Destiny 1 are manipulated and exploited in similar ways. Unlike with the genocide, however, these acts are occurring in the present day and offer an opportunity for Americans to engage in the interpersonal, potentially remedial, process of creative shame. The author’s experience of this generative process is presented, including an example from his clinical work.

MALDI-ToF MS: A Rapid Methodology for Identifying and Subtyping Listeria monocytogenes.

Listeria monocytogenes is a major food-borne pathogen and causative agent of a fatal disease, listeriosis. Stringent regulatory guidelines and zero tolerance policy toward this bacterium necessitate rapid, accurate, and reliable methods of identification and subtyping. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-ToF MS) has recently become a method of choice for routine identification of pathogens in clinical settings and has largely replaced biochemical assays. Identification relies on well-curated databases such as SARAMIS. Extensive use of SARAMIS to generate consensus mass spectra, in conjunction with statistical analysis, such as partial least square-discriminant analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis, is useful in subtyping bacteria. While MALDI-ToF MS has been extensively used for pathogen detection, its application in bacterial subtyping has been limited. The protocol describes a MALDI-ToF MS workflow as a single tool for simultaneous identification and subtyping of L. monocytogenes directly from solid culture medium.

The pandemic paused the US school-to-prison pipeline: potential lessons learned

A global pandemic caused society to radically and quickly reconfigure. Schools, wary of the health risks of in-person instruction, shifted to virtual learning. Although not ideal in many respects, this shift placed adolescents in the USA out of the reach of harsh school disciplinary procedures (ie, zero tolerance policies, out-of-school suspensions, expulsions, and law enforcement referrals), contributing to a drastic reduction in juvenile court referrals nationally. The school-to-prison pipeline paused.

'School Choice Program Expansion: African Centered Curriculum, Education, Thought, and Schools'

The purpose of this research is to explore the complications of the expansion of School Choice Programs (SCP) and the integration of an African-centered curriculum, education, thought, and schools into American public schools and school choice programs. The complications deal with the issues of the Zero Tolerance Policy (ZTP), No Excuses Model, School to Prison Pipeline (STPP), and discriminatory practices that impact students of color at a higher rate than whites such as racial and economic segregation, expulsions, suspensions, and dropout rates, which evidence shows leads to juvenile and incarceration arrests. In order to correct the complications, the framework of African Centered Thought (ACT) based on Dr. Jacob Carruthers, and Critical Race Theory (CRT) should be implemented into the SCP for an African centered curriculum, education, thought, and schools.

Age and road safety performance: Focusing on elderly and young drivers

The existing literature on young and elderly drivers indicates that they have the highest crash risks compared to other age groups of drivers. This study improves our understanding of the risk factors contributing to young and elderly drivers' elevated crash risk by examining self-report data from the E-Survey of Road User's Safety Attitudes (ESRA). The primary objective of this study is to compare the attitudes and behaviours of young, elderly, and middle-age drivers in Canada, the United States, and Europe. The main focus is on the practice of driving while distracted by mobile phones and driving while fatigued, as these are two dangerous behaviours that demonstrate the impact age may have. The analyses consistently showed that there are differences in the responses attributable to age. In all regions, drivers aged 18–21 years consistently reported higher rates of distracted and fatigued driving and higher rates of perceived social and personal acceptability of these behaviours than drivers aged 35–54 years. Elderly drivers aged 65+ years reported even lower rates of these behaviours and acceptability. Young drivers were also the least likely to believe that distraction and fatigue are frequent causes of road crashes, while elderly drivers were the most likely to believe this. This pattern with respect to age repeats in the support for policy measures as well; young drivers are least likely to support zero tolerance policies for mobile phone use when driving, while elderly drivers are the most likely to support this measure. Multivariate logistic regression modeling confirmed that elderly drivers were the least likely to engage in the use of mobile phones while driving or driving while fatigued. Statistically significant results showed that the middle-age group was less likely than young drivers to read a text message/email or check social media while driving and driving while fatigued.

Unseen Costs: The Direct and Indirect Impact of U.S. Immigration Policies on Child and Adolescent Health and Well-Being.

Shifts in migration and border control policies may increase the likelihood of trauma exposure related to child–parent separation and result in costs to the health system and society. In the present study, we estimated direct and indirect costs per child as well as overall cohort costs of border control policies on migrant children and adolescents who were separated from their parents, detained, and placed in the custody of the United States following the implementation of the 2018 Zero Tolerance Policy. Economic modeling techniques, including a Markov process and Monte Carlo simulation, based on data from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network's Core Data Set (N = 458 migrant youth) and published studies were used to estimate economic costs associated with three immigration policies: No Detention, Family Detention, and Zero Tolerance. Clinical evaluation data on mental health symptoms and disorders were used to estimate the initial health state and risks associated with additional trauma exposure for each scenario. The total direct and indirect costs per child were conservatively estimated at $33,008, $33,790, and $34,544 after 5 years for No Detention, Family Detention, and Zero Tolerance, respectively. From a health system perspective, annual estimated spending increases ranged from $1.5 million to $14.9 million for Family Detention and $2.8 million to $29.3 million for Zero Tolerance compared to baseline spending under the No Detention scenario. Border control policies that increase the likelihood of child and adolescent trauma exposure are not only morally troubling but may also create additional economic concerns in the form of direct health care costs and indirect societal costs.

In an Ottoman Holy Land: The Hajj and the Road from Damascus, 1500–1800

In an Ottoman Holy Land: The Hajj and the Road from Damascus, 1500–1800

Prevalence of sexual harassment toward psychiatric nurses and its association with quality of life in China

ObjectiveThis study aimed to examine the prevalence of sexual harassment (SH) toward Chinese psychiatric nurses and its association with quality of life (QOL). MethodsA total of 2124 psychiatric nurses were consecutively recruited from 10 psychiatric hospitals distributed across 10 provinces of China; of them, 1,449 were included for analyses. Participants' socio-demographic characteristics, experiences of workplace SH in the past year, and QOL were recorded. ResultsOverall, 21.5% (n = 311) of participants reported SH, with 8.4% (n = 121) reporting once, 7.1% (n = 103) reporting twice and 6.0% (n = 87) reporting three times or more. Psychiatric nurses who experienced SH had lower QOL in physical, psychological, social, and environmental domains. Multiple logistic regression analysis found that nurses with shorter clinical experience were more likely to experience SH. ConclusionsWorkplace SH toward psychiatric nurses is common in mental health treatment settings in China. Considering its deleterious impact on nurses' well-being and care quality, effective staff training on the management of SH and a zero tolerance policy against SH should be developed for this population.

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), Videoconferencing, and Gender

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), Videoconferencing, and Gender

Separating families, recuperating the “nation-as-family”: Migrant youth and the cultural politics of shame

This study investigates the intersections of policy, affect, and the lives of migrant youth. We approach the Trump Administration’s contingent reversal of a “zero tolerance” family separation policy as an illustrative case for understanding how affect mediates policy-making processes. Combining Critical Policy Analysis (CPA) and affect studies, we analyze 184 print media texts between the declaration of zero tolerance (May 2018) and President Trump’s repeal of his executive order (June 2018). We argue that mainstream media invited publics to sympathize with migrant youth and shame zero tolerance policy and its defenders. While shame catalyzed nationwide #KeepFamiliesTogether protests, it also animated political actions that recuperated “America” as a tolerant nation (e.g., “Love, not hate, makes America great”). In doing so, shame suppressed structural critiques of U.S. state violence toward migrant as well as Black, Indigenous, and minoritized families and youth. We conclude by discussing how a “pedagogy of discomfort” offers one way to build toward more historically responsive and intersectional coalitions for migrant and education justice.

Assessment of Forestry Laws Compliance among Farmers in Rural Forest Communities of Plateau State, Nigeria

The study assessed compliance with forestry laws among rural farmers in rural forest communities of Plateau State, Nigeria. The specific objectives of this study were to; describe the socio-economic characteristics of the rural forest farm families in the study area, examine the level of awareness of forestry laws in the study area, ascertain the level of compliance with forestry laws in the study area and identify the perceived constraints to forestry laws compliance in the study area. The population of the study consists of all the farmers in the rural forest communities of Plateau State. Multi-stage sampling technique was used to select a total number of 216 respondents for the study. Data for the study was garnered using structured questionnaire designed in line with objectives of the study. Analysis of the data was done using descriptive statistics and five point likert rating scale. Log it regression was used to test the hypothesis of the study. Findings revealed that the mean age of the farmers was 39 years with majority (61.0%) of them being male. The result also revealed that 85.0% of the respondents were married with majority (57.0%) of the respondents having non-formal education. The average household size of the respondents was 7 persons and average farm size of 2.5 hectares. The result further shows that only 49.0% of the farmers had contact with extension agents between 1 and 5 times in the last one year. Results indicate that farmers’ level of compliance with forestry laws in the study area was poor. The few forestry laws complied with in the study area were: law prohibiting the pasturing or grazing of cattle in the forest reserve (X=3.02), law prohibiting the erection of buildings or roads in the forest reserve (X=3.85) and law prohibiting kindling of fire in the forest reserve (X=3.54).Constraints to compliance with forestry laws includes; Perceived lack of fairness of tree tenure (79%), lack of alternative economic opportunities (87%), as a constraint to forest law compliance in the study area, lack of awareness of forest laws (71%), increased demand for agricultural land (42%), general lack of perceived legitimacy (33%), Corruption in government institutions (28%) and weak law enforcement (5%). The null hypothesis was rejected. The study recommends that, a zero tolerance policy on non-compliance with forestry laws should be put in place to checkmate indiscriminate exploitation of forest resources.

MP01: Just another day on the job: Workforce experience with violence in emergency departments and urgent care centres

Introduction: Compared to other areas in Alberta Health Services (AHS), internal data show that emergency departments (EDs) and urgent care centres (UCCs) experience a high rate of workforce violence. As such, reducing violence in AHS EDs and UCCs is a key priority. This project explored staff's lived experience with patient violence with the goal of better understanding its impact, and what strategies and resources could be put in place. Methods: To obtain a representative sample, we recruited staff from EDs and a UCC (n = 6) situated in urban and rural settings across Alberta. As the interviews had the potential to be upsetting, we conducted in-person interviews in a private space. Interviews were conducted with over 60 staff members including RNs, LPNs, unit clerks, physicians, and protective services. Data collection and analysis occurred simultaneously and iteratively until saturation was reached. The analysis involved data reduction, category development, and synthesis. Key phrases and statements were first highlighted. Preliminary labels were then assigned to the data and data was then organized into meaningful clusters. Finally, we identified common themes of participants’ lived experience. Triangulation of sources, independent and team analysis, and frequent debriefing sessions were used to enhance the trustworthiness of the data. Results: Participants frequently noted the worry they carry with them when coming into work, but also said there was a high threshold of acceptance dominating ED culture. A recurring feature of this experience was the limited resources (e.g., no peace officers, scope of security staff) available to staff to respond when patients behave violently or are threatening. Education like non-violent crisis intervention training, although helpful, was insufficient to make staff feel safe. Participants voiced the need for more protective services, the addition of physical barriers like locking doors and glass partitions, more investment in addictions and mental health services (e.g., increased access to psychiatrists or addictions counsellors), and a greater shared understanding of AHS’ zero tolerance policy. Conclusion: ED and UCC staff describe being regularly exposed to violence from patients and visitors. Many of these incidents go unreported and unresolved, leaving the workforce feeling worried and unsupported. Beyond education, the ED and UCC workforce need additional resources to support them in feeling safe coming to work.

Revisiting Zero Tolerance Policy in Public Schools: The Case for Wraparound Services, Community Partnerships, and Antiracist Policies in Alternative Schooling

BackgroundThe disparities and inequalities that exists in the education system are perpetuated through behavioral alternative schools (BASs). It is suggested that assignment to a BAS does not significantly improve students' grades but rather leads primarily Black impoverished students through the school-to-prison pipeline.ObjectiveAlthough BASs have existed for more than four decades and continue to enroll annually large populations of America's students, implications for policy, practice, and future research remain relevant.MethodsThis review offers a brief history of BASs and zero tolerance policy (ZTP) in public schools.FindingsThe review offers ZTP recommendations for policy restoration and provides an outline of a four-step process for implementing ZTP fairly and equally.ConclusionsMoving current alternative schools into self-directed learning with social and community supports, not only promotes social justice, but also allows for restoration of ZTP to focus on the undeniable need to keep children of all races safe in school.

Physio-Chemical Assessment of Industrial Effluents in Chattogram, Bangladesh

Rapid industrialization is adversely impacting the environment globally. The study was carried out to evaluate the biophysical properties of samples contaminated by unplanned industrialization in terms of Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) efficiency and availability. So, the study aims to evaluate the present scenario of water and air pollution by industrial discharges in order to create public awareness and its impact on public. The study area is Chittagong, the second largest metropolis of Bangladesh and the economic gateway of the country, is situated on the right bank of the river Karnaphuli. This research study was carried out in five industries as a sampling station before and after treatment of industrial discharges and covered mainly winter and dry seasons from Nov 2016 to July 2019.The obtained range of results of waste water were 151-454 mg L-1 for total suspended solids (TSS), 2129-2,999 mg L-1 for total dissolved solids (TDS), 2284-5710 mg L-1 for Total solids, 107-864mg L-1 for hardness, 2.26-7.02mg L-1 for dissolved oxygen, 61-191 mg L-1 for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 196-260 mg L-1 for chemical oxygen demand (COD), 0.009 mg L-1 for Cd, Here almost all the parameters of industrial discharges are out of range prescribed by the Department of Environment (DoE), Bangladesh which is so much frightening. So, the properly untreated industrial discharges mainly heavy metals are deposited in human bodies through food cycle and inhalation particulate matters impacts on human body. It was observed that all of the industries in the selected area did not establish the ETP section. Most of the used experimental industries almost possessed similar types of ETP and their effluent treatment ways were capable to decrease their different parameters but not effective to maintain the standard discharge limit prescribed by the DoE. Finally, it can be said that like terrorism, our government should take zero tolerance policy against industrial pollution for our existence and then we can save our environment.

COVID-19, wall building, and the effects on Migrant Protection Protocols by the Trump administration: the spectacle of the worsening human rights disaster on the Mexico-U.S. border

The COVID-19 pandemic has repercussions well beyond the confines of borders. National border policies can thwart international efforts to combat the spread of infectious diseases. These problems are especially relevant for the United States with the spectacle of President Trump’s “big, beautiful border wall” used as leverage to maintain political and economic power domestically and globally while confronting the coronavirus pandemic. The focus of this paper is the implementation of Trump’s Zero Tolerance Policy, Migrant Protection Protocols, and the Asylum Cooperation Agreement, all aimed primarily at migrants and refugees, the homo sacer, from Central America to prevent entrance into the U.S. using the border security apparatus. These policies have adverse consequences for people dwelling throughout the hemisphere, particularly borderlanders, as the COVID-19 pandemic spreads into the Americas.

The Security Apparatus, Federal Magistrate Courts, and Detention Centers as Simulacra: The Effects of Trump's Zero Tolerance Policy on Migrants and Refugees in the Rio Grande Valley

Trump's Department of Homeland Security implemented the Zero Tolerance policy from April 6 to June 24, 2018. Refugees, prevented from crossing the midpoints of bridges by Customs and Border Protection agents, crossed the Rio Grande to ask for asylum, were denied, and forced to cross at places deemed illegal by law. This resulted in misdemeanor violations for unlawful entry and fleeing immigration checkpoints. The policy initiative centered on the separation of children from their migrant parents—refugees fleeing from the northern triangle countries: El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala. Adult migrants were sent to prisons and holding facilities, brought before a magistrate to plead guilty, and were deported while their children were placed in government‐funded privately‐owned detention centers. Migrants contend with a security apparatus comprised of border walls, zones of surveillance, agents, and paramilitary troops. This article analyzes the United States (in)security system using Baudrillard's concept of simulacrum supplemented by Foucault's dispositif and Agamben's apparatuses.Related ArticlesByrne, Jennifer, and Gregory C. Dixon. 2013. “Reevaluating American Attitudes toward Immigrants in the Twenty‐First Century: The Role of a Multicreedal National Identity.” Politics & Policy 41 (1): 83‐116. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12002Duman, Yoav H. 2014. “Reducing the Fog? Immigrant Regularization and the State.” Politics & Policy 42 (2): 187‐220. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12065Silverman, Stephanie J. 2012. “‘Regrettable but Necessary?’ A Historical and Theoretical Study of the Rise of the U.K. Immigration Detention Estate and its Opposition.” Politics & Policy 40 (6): 1131‐1157. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-1346.2012.00393.x

Modeling and designing a Listeria monocytogenes control strategy for dry-cured ham taking advantage of water activity and storage temperature

Dry-cured ham is a shelf-stable product that can be contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes due to post-processing operations, compromising the compliance of zero tolerance policies (e.g. US Listeria rule). The present study quantifies the behavior of L. monocytogenes in sliced Spanish dry-cured ham of different water activity (aw) during storage at different temperatures. Inactivation kinetics were estimated by fitting primary models to the experimental data. The effect of temperature and aw on kinetic parameters was characterized through secondary polynomial models. L. monocytogenes viability decreased in all the assayed conditions, confirming that dry-cured ham is not only listeriostatic but listericidal. The fastest and highest reductions were observed at 25 °C, with 1 Log reduction after 6 and 9 days in Iberian and Serrano ham respectively. The work provides scientifically-based data and models to design a low-cost control measure based on a corrective storage as a post-lethality treatment to enhance the accomplishment of zero-tolerance requirements.

Making the Case for Love in Leadership

The presence of incivility, bullying, cultural intolerance, and violence in our healthcare organizations continues to be on the rise. Strategies to decrease and eradicate these issues are evident in those efforts to adopt zero tolerance policies and the importance of creating joy and meaning at work. Modeling loving behaviors, though not widely accepted, may just be the framework for exceptional leadership.

A Survey of School Discipline Gatekeepers about the Implementation of the Non-Exclusionary Discipline Practices Reform in Illinois Schools

Two years after the State of Illinois enacted an extensive non-exclusionary discipline reform in schools, 322 key discipline gatekeepers in schools were surveyed about the extent and impact of its implementation. The results showed that a number of core provisions of the reform had not been fully implemented or addressed through professional development. Creating re-entry plans for students with long suspensions, eliminating zero tolerance policies, and limiting disciplinary transfers to alternative schools were the least implemented provisions. Furthermore, contrary to principals’ wishful and embellished self-reporting, large proportions of school personnel still had not received required professional development in key topics such as adverse consequences of school exclusion and justice-system involvement, culturally responsive discipline, and developmentally appropriate disciplinary methods that promote positive and healthy school climate. Finally, sharp differences were found between principals and teachers and support personnel about the continuing prevalence and high frequency of discipline incidents, and about improvement in the overall school climate. If the reform is going to be impactful, it was recommended that more emphasis be placed on ensuring that teachers and support personnel receive adequate and timely professional development on the provisions of the policies.