Token Rewards Research Articles

A comparison of methods for training self-control

Three methods of training self-control were compared in a group of disruptive adolescent boys: a token fading group, where skills at self-evaluation, prediction of reward consequences, and self-monitoring were necessary to obtain points; a behavioral rehearsal group, where (GSR) machines provided feedback of emotional control during role playing of stressful situations; and a traditional therapy group. The token fading condition was effective in establishing self-control in classroom situations not monitored by any contingency system as well as in the training classroom following termination of token rewards. While showing no such classroom generalization, the behavioral rehearsal students learned to respond more effectively on tests measuring cognitive tasks such as attention span, foresight, resistance to distraction, and persistence. No treatment effect was noted for the traditional therapy condition. The results suggest that self-control is not a unitary concept, and provide a basis for specifying treatment approaches appropriate to specific self-control goals. The appropriateness of some self-control treatment goals is also discussed.

Token reinforcement in the treatment of nocturnal enuresis: A case study and six month follow-up

A 14-yr-old male patient with a life-long history of nocturnal enuresis was given token rewards for non-enuretic behavior. The behavior was eliminated in 28 weeks and control was maintained at 6 month follow-up. Implications of this new use of token reinforcements and the need for experimental verification are briefly discussed.

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Token rewards and straw men.

Token rewards and straw men.

Token rewards and straw men.

Token rewards and straw men.

Token rewards may lead to token learning.

Token rewards may lead to token learning.

SOME EFFECTS OF TOKEN REWARDS ON SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT OF CHILDREN WITH DOWN'S SYNDROME1

The effectiveness of a token economy system in producing improvement in the academic performance of children with Down's syndrome was tested. One group of seven children received token reinforcement for correct responses and showed significant improvement both in arithmetic and language. A second matched group of six children received only verbal praise for correct responses to the same instructional materials and failed to improve in arithmetic but showed significant gains in language. Re-test scores one year later revealed that the Token Group maintained its gains in both subjects whereas the language performance of the No-Token Group showed a significant decline.

Effects of the value of contingent self-administered and noncontingent externally imposed reward on children’s behavioral productivity

Children’s behavioral productivity as a function of method of reward (contingent self-administered vs noncontingent externally imposed) and exchange value of token rewards (none, low, and high) was examined in a 2 by 3 factorial design. Ss were required to set their own standards and to turn a crank in order to reach them. Contingent-reward Ss self-administered tokens whenever their self-imposed standards were attained, while noncontingent-reward Ss received tokens during the course of their play and were yoked to Ss in the contingent condition with respect to the number of tokens received. The productivity of children who received exchangeable tokens exceeded that of control Ss who received no tokens, and the number of cranks produced during the 4-min performance period was directly related to the value of the token rewards for both contingently and noncontingently rewarded Ss. Ss in the latter group changed their standards significantly more often than those in the former, suggesting that they were responding “superstitiously” to the administration of reward.

The Santa Monica Project: Evaluation of an Engineered Classroom Design with Emotionally Disturbed Children

Six public school classrooms of children with learning and behavior problems were studied to assess the effectiveness of an engineered classroom design. The experimental condition consisted of rigid adherence to the design while the control condition provided any type program the teacher chose except use of token and tangible rewards. Task attention and achievement gains in arithmetic fundamentals were found to be significantly correlated with the presence of the engineered design.

Frustration effects rather than Sr effects in children

A light was paired with token rewards for experimental children, and was unpaired for control children. Extinction of a cranking response was accompanied by periodic presentation of the light. Contrary to Sr predictions, experimental Ss extinguished first. A frustration interpretation seems more appropriate.

Reward structure and payoff preferences in human learning

Ss’ preferences when choosing between a pair of token rewards, one a known and the other an unknown value, were determined under two conditions, (1) the range of possible reward values was known from the outset of the experiment and (2) the range had to be learned. Analysis of choice probabilities and latencies indicated choices yielded almost optimal outcomes although there was some tendency to choose a non-optimal unknown alternative if it might possibly yield a large reward. Choices of known alternatives closer to the endpoints of the range of values were made more quickly even though choice probabilities were equal, and choices were made more slowly by Ss who had to learn the range of values.