Tok Pisin Research Articles

Gaps in HIV Testing and Treatment Among Female Sex Workers in Lae and Mt. Hagen, Papua New Guinea.

We conducted biobehavioral surveys among female sex workers (FSW) in Lae and Mt. Hagen, Papua New Guinea (January-December 2017). Respondent-driven sampling was used to recruit FSW aged ≥ 12years, who were assigned female sex at birth, who spoke English or Tok Pisin, and who sold or exchanged sex for money, goods, or services in the last 6months. When adjusted for viral suppression, 48.9% of FSW Lae and 61.9% in Mt. Hagen were aware of their HIV positive status. Of these women, 95.3% in Lae and 98.9% in Mt. Hagen were on antiretroviral therapy, and of these, 83.5% in Lae and 87.0% in Mt. Hagen had suppressed viral load. Renewed efforts are needed to increase HIV testing among FSW and provide support to FSW on treatment in both cities to attain viral suppression.

Some aspects of climate change communication and effectiveness in PNG

This article examines some aspects of climate change communication in Papua New Guinea (PNG), particularly the use of Tok Pisin language. To place the issue in a broader, global context, the article compares the situation in PNG with that of the use of Pidgin English in Nigeria. The article argues that a major project needs to be undertaken to determine the effectiveness of this communication. It suggests drawing on the experience of both the Bougainville Audience Study and the BBC Trusts’ examination of climate change in Nigeria.

English Straight and Tok Pisin Stret: A Case Study from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics

Abstract The framework of cognitive linguistics can be an efficient tool to represent the conceptual scope of meaning extension in reduced lexicons of pidgins and creoles. Image-schema based metaphors (Lakoff, 1993; Cienki, 1998) underlie the usage of English straight and its Tok Pisin counterpart stret, but the creole employs the concept in more contexts than English. The resultant variation in the scope of metaphor takes the form of a particular source domain being used to conceptualize more target domains than in the lexifier language. Functioning mainly as a compensation strategy, the variation is the effect of strong influence of English on the conceptual system of the creole.

Considerable distance to reach 90-90-90 targets among female sex workers, men who have sex with men and transgender women in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea: findings from a cross-sectional respondent-driven sampling survey

ObjectiveTo characterise the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS 90-90-90 cascade among female sex workers (FSW) and men who have sex with men (MSM)/transgender women (TGW) in Port Moresby, Papua...

Storying Toward Pasin and Luksave: Permeable Relationships Between Papua New Guineans as Researchers and Participants

In Oceania, Papua New Guinea (PNG) appears large in the consciousness of exploring social life through the notion of sociality. Scholarship within the Melanesian region employs sociality to interrogate forms of social life and the different ways research methods account for the understanding of interactions between individuals and communities. Yet for the three PNG authors this assumed coherency between epistemes and method highlighted specific conceptual challenges for us as researchers and participants. We identified with two conceptual notions: “pasin” and “luksave” as distinct Austronesian language ideas derived from Tok Pisin—a creolisation of English utilized as a lingua franca throughout the country. We explored the development of pasin and luksave and the ways the conceptual claims served a dual function of developing a methodological and epistemic pathway toward an ethical assurance of meaningful relationality. We extend on current understanding in two ways. Firstly employing the methodology of story as critique of research assumptions and secondly, extend on the process of story work to suggest storying as a novel but relatable research methodology. Storying such research experiences as both method and epistemic accountability, guided our responsibility toward the relationships we hold to people, community and knowledge. Pasin and luksave embed an emancipatory and de-colonial intent through the guise of oral stories. These intentions in our scholarship fostered a form of coherent expressions of research claim and method assumption and also raised questions for us regarding what decolonizing Papua New Guinea ought to consider. Our paper also highlights a reformulation of the different ways research considers Oceania in particular Melanesia and the Papua New Guinean research context.

Factors associated with HIV and syphilis infection among female sex workers in three cities in Papua New Guinea: findings from Kauntim mi tu, a biobehavioral survey.

Respondent-driven sampling surveys among FSW in Port Moresby, Lae, and Mt. Hagen (2016-17) were conducted. FSW who were aged ≥12 years, who were born female, who spoke English or Tok Pisin and who had sold or exchanged vaginal sex in the past 6 months were eligible to participate. Participants were interviewed face-to-face and offered rapid HIV and syphilis testing. Survey logistic procedures were used to identify factors associated with HIV and syphilis infection, including modern contraception use, physical violence and having a casual male partner. Weighted data analysis was conducted. Overall, 2901 FSW (Port Moresby, 673; Lae, 709; and Mt. Hagen, 709) were enrolled in the study. HIV prevalence was 15.2% in Port Moresby, 11.9% in Lae and 19.6% in Mt. Hagen. Factors associated with HIV varied by city; for example, use of modern contraception in Port Moresby, experiences of physical violence in Lae and ever having tested for HIV in Mt. Hagen. No one variable was associated with HIV in all cities. Prevalence of syphilis infection was 7.1%, 7.0%, and 3.0% in Port Moresby, Lae, and Mt. Hagen, respectively. Factors associated with syphilis infection also varied by city and were only significant in Lae. The different factors associated with HIV and syphilis infection in each city highlight the complex HIV and syphilis epidemics among FSW and the importance of conducting surveys in multiple locations and developing local interventions.

Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea James Stiefvater (bio) Dramatic changes in national leadership, the final realization of the long-promised Bougainville referendum, and the painfully slow process of relocating asylum seekers from Papua New Guinea (PNG) and phasing out the Manus Detention Centre played key roles on the national stage of PNG in 2019. While not an election year, 2019 proved to contain a tumultuous chapter in the halls of Port Moresby’s Parliament Haus. Flagging support for Prime Minister Peter O’Neill and signs of an impending vote of no confidence led the prime minister to suspend Parliament in early February, a tactical move to buy time to try and shore up support for a government on the wane. The decision was controversial but ultimately proved to be ineffective, as the three-month gap merely postponed the inevitable. In April, with Parliament still on hiatus, members of Parliament for government and the opposition set up camp at two Port Moresby hotels, the former at the long-established Crown Plaza, located on the hill in downtown Port Moresby, and the latter at the newer Laguna Hotel near Parliament Haus in Waigani. After only a short time, several high-ranking ministers from the prime minister’s camp began to make their way to the opposition quarters, most notably Finance Minister James Marape, who would eventually be selected as prime minister. Marape initially only resigned from his Cabinet position, citing policy differences, but did not leave the government side, stating in Tok Pisin that “‘government wok mas go yet’—meaning the work of the government must continue” (Fox 2019b). Five days later, however, he made the trek to the opposition. Reports that Defence Minister Solan Mirisim had followed him surfaced hours later but turned out to be false (Tamahana 2019), highlighting the speculative nature and rushed reporting of rumors from observers in both the media and the general public. Marape’s defection put O’Neill under tremendous pressure, leading him to talk up the unity within his group and downplay the gravity of the moment (Whiting 2019c), but more pressure was to come, as Attorney General and Justice Minister Davis Steven quickly followed Marape. Steven had his own reasons for leaving the government’s camp, stating that “important state institutions and agencies are weakened by our leadership to serve few people’s interests and needs” (rnz 2019a). With a minimum requirement of 56 mps to control Parliament, the 26 mps of the opposition that initially set up at the Laguna Hotel were counting closely as they were joined by some two dozen more parliamentary representatives within the span of eight days, from the end of April through the beginning of May. These included all five governors of the Highlands provinces (Wayne 2019a), as well as three more [End Page 587] ministers from the prime minister’s cabinet: Health Minister Sir Puka Temu, Defence Minister Solan Mirisim (as previously rumored), and Forestry Minister Douglas Tomuriesa. A significant number of those joining the opposition were members of the Pangu Party, a historic political party that was once a key ally and coalition partner of O’Neill’s People’s National Congress (pnc), which essentially fell apart as leader Sam Basil and others changed sides (Blades 2019). The wave of people and parties leaving the pnc-led coalition continued throughout May as the United Resources Party, including the ministers for police and state enterprises, joined the opposition, giving them control of at least sixty parliamentary seats (rnz 2019c). The choice of hotels for the government and opposition to stage their meetings, internal caucuses, and press conferences can be seen as allegorical, as each represents the standing of the group based within it. The Crown Plaza is an established institution in Port Moresby, located high on the hill in the well-to-do downtown area with views over all sides of the peninsula. Like the O’Neill government and its key ally, the Pangu Party, it is recognized widely but out of the reach of most local people, and its age is evident. The opposition’s Laguna Hotel—ironically a key venue for many Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (apec) meetings—is a newer establishment with contemporary...

‘National’ and ‘Official’ Languages Across the Independent Asia-Pacific

Between November 2018 and 2020, residents of New Caledonia will have three opportunities to vote on whether to become an independent state. Residents of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville will vote on the same issue in June 2019. Should the residents of either territory vote for independence, the issue of whether a language shall be designated the national and / or official language for the new state will arise. If the decision is to designate a language for the new state, the choice of which language will also surface. This chapter considers the language choices made by a number of countries across the linguistically diverse Asia Pacific region post-independence and in so doing, provides some models for the language configurations which may eventuate should either territory become independent. The linguistic configurations discussed here are divided into Category 1 - countries where a national and / or official language are legally specified or have de jure legal status. - and Category 2 – countries where no language is legally named but at least one language may be de facto national or official. Examples of Category 1 countries include Indonesia where Bahasa Indonesia is the only de jure national and official language and Vanuatu where Bislama is the de jure national language and is also a de jure co-official language with both English and French, the languages of the former colonial powers. Examples of Category 2 countries discussed here include Papua New Guinea where Tok Pisin is named as one of the possible languages needed for an applicant to become a Papua New Guinean citizen but does not have de jure national language status and the Solomon Islands where Pijin is the de facto national language and English is the de facto official language.
 Whilst the results of either the Bougainville and New Caledonian referenda are not clear, the different configurations already in place serve as a pointer to what may eventuate should the residents of either territory vote for independence.

Wantok and Lain – a look at two Melanesian cultural concepts in two Tok Pisin texts

Abstract This article looks at salient interpersonal uses and meanings of two prominent Tok Pisin social relations nouns – wantok ('friend', 'same language speaker') and lain ('group', 'family', 'clan') – which it is proposed exemplify key cultural Melanesian concepts in some anthropological literature of the area. Whereas certain aspects of language use in Tok Pisin were identified as potentially divisive and socially harmful, some scholars endeavoured to identify a group of concepts indicative of culturally specific Melanesian values. For example, the words wantok and lain were claimed to jointly represent 'the value of the clan' across Melanesian societies, while embodying and supporting a distinct world-view of the Melanesian peoples. This article studies two Tok Pisin texts which focus on the cultural significance of concepts of wantok and lain in their rural/traditional environment. While the first text offers a native speaker's insight into the social significance of the cultural expression wantok sistem ('system favouring friends'), the other one details the roles of lain in the passage of a bride-price ceremony. Given that both texts presuppose the cultural background of rural Tok Pisin, a brief look at some characteristic usage of the two words in electronic media suggests that certain aspects of traditional uses and meanings of these words may be extended and employed to conceptualize new social and political phenomena.

A Look at Tok Pisin save: A Lexical Verb and an Aspectual Marker in a Cultural Context

This paper studies a common Tok Pisin lexical verb and auxiliary save ‘know’; ‘habitual’, respectively, and its prominent uses in examples of social interaction described in one section of the Wantok magazine and a Papua New Guinean writer’s short narrative. The linguistic material examined here seems to point to the semantic category of ‘social relationship nouns’ (SRNs) as relevant to the contextually and culturally adequate understanding of the examined examples of Tok Pisin usage.

Shame and Care: Masculinities in the Goroka Marketplace

ABSTRACTFor those women living in villages within accessible range of Goroka town, it is the norm to sell fresh produce in the Goroka market. Fresh produce trading, or maket in Tok Pisin, is common for women throughout the country. To see men selling food in the Goroka market is significantly less common, and those who do, usually sell foods brought from outside of Goroka. The gender divisions that exist in and around the marketplace today in Goroka are maintained through discourses of emotions and practice, specifically the notion of sem (Tok Pisin: shame, embarrassment). As part of a 12‐month ethnographic research project on gender relations in and around the Goroka market, I spoke with market vendors, amongst others living in and around Goroka, about why men do not market. I also interviewed some of the few men who do sell fresh produce in the market. Based on these men's explanations and those of others with whom I spoke, I suggest that these sellers exhibit aspects of masculinity that are caring for their families, putting shame second, and justifying this by their aspirations to transform their and their loved ones’ lives through education and business. These men demonstrate an emergent form of masculinity that both includes and contests aspects of hegemonic masculinity in the Highlands. Whilst selling fresh produce in the marketplace is deemed embarrassing and shameful for the majority of men, those who sell regardless justify doing so by pointing to the importance of providing for their families and loved ones.

Experiments with artificial nests provide evidence for ant community stratification and nest site limitation in a tropical forest

AbstractAnts are dominant in tropical forests and many species nest in hollow cavities. The manner in which species are vertically stratified in these complex habitats is not known, with lack of nest sites being proposed to limit ant populations. Here, we assess ant community stratification and nest site limitation in a lowland rainforest in New Guinea using experimental addition of artificial bamboo nests of two cavity sizes (small: ~12 mm large: ~32 mm diameter) placed at ground level, in the understorey, and in the canopy. We also conducted a pilot experiment to test the utility of nest translocation. Nests were checked for occupancy after 10 weeks and half of the occupied nests were then translocated between forest plots, while keeping same vertical position. Occupancy of small nests was much higher in the understorey and canopy than at ground level (~75% vs. ~25%). Translocation was successful, as a majority of nests was inhabited by the same species before and after translocation and there was no impact of translocation to a different plot compared to the control, except for a reduction in colony size at ground level. Our experiment demonstrates a vertical stratification in community composition of ants nesting in hollow dead cavities and shows that these ants are more nest site limited in the higher strata than at ground level. Use of small artificial cavities has great potential for future experimental studies, especially for those focused on arboreal ants, as occupancy is high and translocation does not negatively affect their colony size.Abstract in Tok Pisin is available with online material.

One size does not fit all: HIV prevalence and correlates of risk for men who have sex with men, transgender women in multiple cities in Papua New Guinea

BackgroundBiobehavioral data about men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender women (TGW) in Papua New Guinea (PNG) are limited to those who sell sex. Information about those MSM and TGW who do not sell sex is necessary to guide HIV prevention and treatment efforts.MethodsWe conducted respondent-driven sampling (RDS) surveys among MSM and TGW in Port Moresby, Lae, and Mt. Hagen, PNG from in 2016 and 2017. Eligibility criteria was: aged > 12 years, born male, could speak English or Tok Pisin and had oral or anal sex with another person born male in the past 6 months. Participants were interviewed face-to-face and offered rapid HIV testing. Weighted data analysis was conducted using RDS-Analyst (v. 0.62).ResultsWe enrolled 400 participants in Port Moresby, 352 in Lae, and 111 in Mt. Hagen. In the last six months, 73.2% of MSM/TGW in Port Moresby, 77.9% in Lae, and 75.9% in Mt. Hagen, had a concurrent sexual partnership. Upwards of 70% of MSM/TGW in all three cities had sex with a woman in the same period. Less than half of MSM/TGW had ever tested for HIV. HIV prevalence among MSM/TGW was 8.5% in Port Moresby and 6.9% in Lae. Among participants in Mt. Hagen it was 1.3%. HIV was associated with not having sex with a woman in the last six months and sexually transmitted disease symptoms in the last 12 months in Port Moresby and Lae. In Port Moresby, it was also associated with an uncut foreskin, and in Lae with earning income in the formal sector and being unable to rely on other MSM or TGW to accompany them to healthcare services.ConclusionsThe large proportion of MSM and TGW with concurrent sexual partnerships, combined with the low testing coverage, indicates strong potential for the spread of HIV. The different correlates of HIV in Port Moresby and Lae highlight the importance of conducting surveys in multiple locations and using data to develop locally appropriate interventions even within a country.

Kuantim mi tu ("Count me too"): Using Multiple Methods to Estimate the Number of Female Sex Workers, Men Who Have Sex With Men, and Transgender Women in Papua New Guinea in 2016 and 2017.

BackgroundFemale sex workers (FSW), men who have sex with men (MSM), and transgender women (TGW) are at high risk of acquiring HIV in many settings, such as Papua New Guinea (PNG). An understanding of the approximate size of these populations can inform resource allocation for HIV services for FSW, MSM, and TGW.ObjectiveAn objective of this multi-site survey was to conduct updated population size estimations (PSE) of FSW and MSM/TGW.MethodsRespondent-driven sampling (RDS) biobehavioral surveys of FSW and MSM/TGW were conducted in 3 major cities—(1) Port Moresby, (2) Lae, and (3) Mount Hagen—between June 2016 and December 2017. Eligibility criteria for FSW included: (1) ≥12 years of age, (2) born female, (3) could speak English or Tok Pisin (PNG Pidgin), and (4) had sold or exchanged sex with a man in the past six months. Eligibility for MSM/TGW included: (1) ≥12 years of age, (2) born male, (3) could speak English, or Tok Pisin, and (4) had engaged in oral or anal sex with another person born male in the past six months. PSE methods included unique object multiplier, service multiplier, and successive sampling-population size estimation (SS-PSE) using imputed visibility. Weighted data analyses were conducted using RDS-Analyst and Microsoft Excel.ResultsSample sizes for FSW and MSM/TGW in Port Moresby, Lae, and Mount Hagen included: (1) 673 and 400, (2) 709 and 352, and (3) 709 and 111 respectively. Keychains were used for the unique object multiplier method and were distributed 1 week before the start of each RDS survey. HIV service testing data were only available in Port Moresby and Mount Hagen and SS-PSE estimates were calculated for all cities. Due to limited service provider data and uncertain prior size estimation knowledge, unique object multiplier weighted estimations were chosen for estimates. In Port Moresby, we estimate that there are 16,053 (95% CI 8232-23,874) FSW and 7487 (95% CI 3975-11,000) MSM/TGW, approximately 9.5% and 3.8% of the female and male populations respectively. In Lae, we estimate that there are 6105 (95% CI 4459-7752) FSW and 4669 (95% CI 3068-6271) MSM/TGW, approximately 14.4% and 10.1% of the female and male populations respectively. In Mount Hagen, we estimate that there are 2646 (95% CI 1655-3638) FSW and 1095 (95% CI 913-1151) MSM/TGW using service multiplier and successive sampling, respectively. This is approximately 17.1% and 6.3% of the female and male populations respectively.ConclusionsAs the HIV epidemic in PNG rapidly evolves among key populations, PSE should be repeated to produce current estimates for timely comparison and future trend analysis.

Developing a culturally appropriate illustrated tool for the self-collection of anorectal specimens for the testing of sexually transmitted infections: lessons from Papua New Guinea

BackgroundPapua New Guinea (PNG) has a high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). There is increasing evidence that anorectal STIs are important in terms of the dual epidemics of HIV and STIs in this setting. At the time of this study, anorectal STI testing was not possible, and there was no mechanism for self-collection of anorectal specimen among at risk ‘key populations’. This paper documents the development of a culturally appropriate tool that has been used to facilitate self-collection of anorectal specimens with key populations in PNG.MethodsThis qualitative study involved four focus groups conducted with a purposive sample of 35 participants, including female sex workers, men who have sex with men and transgender women in Port Moresby and Goroka in 2015. During focus groups, participants reviewed and provided critical feedback for the adaption of a previously piloted and published pictorial anorectal specimen collection tool for use with key populations in PNG.ResultsThe final instruction tools are presented in English language and Tok Pisin. To develop these, participants feedback resulted in six key areas of the existing instruction document being modified to ensure it was appropriate for use in PNG. These included translating complex words for sexual health issues (i.e. ‘STIs’, ‘anorectal STIs’, ‘anus’, ‘anal sex’), biomedical instruments (i.e. ‘specimen bottle’, ‘specimen packet’ and ‘swab’), and aspects of the clinical procedure (i.e. inserting the swab 3–4 cm into the anus to collect a specimen). The visual identity of the graphics was redesigned to localise the images for use in PNG.ConclusionsThis paper describes the development of a culturally and linguistically appropriate tool for a biomedical and clinical intervention with key populations in PNG based around self-collection of anorectal specimens for molecular STI testing. The final tools have been used to facilitate the self-collection of anorectal specimens following a clear clinical protocol during a large bio-behavioural survey in PNG.

Meeting in the Middle: Using Lingua Franca in Cross-Language Qualitative Health Research in Papua New Guinea

With words as data, qualitative researchers rely upon language to understand the meaning participants make of the phenomena under study. Cross-language research requires communication about and between linguistic systems, with language a site of power. This article describes the use of the lingua franca of Tok Pisin in a study conducted to explore the implications of male circumcision for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevention for women in Papua New Guinea. Utilizing a transformational grounded theory methodology, researchers conducted an analysis of data from an HIV prevention study. Researchers then facilitated individual interviews and interpretive focus groups to explore preliminary categories identified during the analysis. Most focus groups and interviews were conducted in the local lingua franca Tok Pisin, which is neither the researchers’ nor most participants’ first language. Audio recordings were transcribed and analyzed. Researchers returned to research participants to discuss research findings and recommendations. Following critical reflection by the authors and further discussions with participants, it was evident that using Tok Pisin enriched the research process and findings. Using the lingua franca of Tok Pisin enabled interaction in a language closer to the lived experience of participants, devolved the power of the researcher, and was consistent with decolonizing methodologies. Participants reported the use of Tok Pisin, em i tasim (pilim) bun bilong mipela, “it touches our bones,” and enabled a flow of conversation with the researchers that engendered trust. It is critical researchers address hierarchies of language in order to enable cogeneration of quality research findings.

ЗАЛОГ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ГЛАГОЛА И ЕГО СУДЬБА В АНГЛО-ПИДЖИНАХ И КРЕОЛЯХ

The article considers various modern approaches to the interpretation of the category of verb voice in the English language and the transformation of this grammatical phenomenon in the source language in the process of the emergence and development of new contact languages by the example of the English pidgins and creoles. The analysis is conducted by the material of the creoles Krio, Tok Pisin, Kriol, the Trinidadian and Jamaican creoles. Basing on the study of the processes of forming a new grammatical system of creoles, the authors establish the tendency of the decay of the source language verbal paradigm, the complete rejection of the passive voice use and the similarity of the general structural process of languages development.

Worlds apart: language survival and language use in two Middle Sepik communities

This contribution focuses on the language situation in two different communities of the Middle Sepik area, speaking closely related languages of the Ndu family – the Manambu and the Yalaku. The two groups maintain traditional features typical of river-dwellers who live on the banks of the Sepik River (the Manambu) and those who live of the River, or jungle-dwellers (the Yalaku), including subsistence and exchange patterns. Due to a history of interactions with the Kwoma-speaking people, the Yalaku language has incorporated numerous borrowings and grammatical calques from Kwoma (not genetically related to the Ndu family to which both Manambu and Yalaku belong). In contrast, there is hardly any Manambu-Kwoma multilingualism. A major difference between the two groups lies in the high number of loans from Tok Pisin in Manambu and the scarcity of them in Yalaku. The paper addresses the changes in the lifestyles of the two groups, contrasting their responses to social and cultural changes as reflected in linguistic change and in attitudes to language.

Contact-Induced Change in an Oceanic Language: The Paluai – Tok Pisin Case

Many studies have focused on substrate influence on the creole languages of Melanesia – Tok Pisin, Solomons Pijin and Bislama. The same cannot be said with regard to influence in the opposite direction: contact-induced change occurring in local vernaculars due to pressure from the creole. This paper presents a case study of several instances of structural borrowing and semantic category change in Paluai, an Oceanic language spoken in Papua New Guinea. It is shown that a number of functional elements originating from Tok Pisin are now firmly embedded in Paluai grammar: two verbs, gat and inap, and a conjunction, taim. Moreover, semantic categories are undergoing change and possibly attrition due to many-to-one correspondences. This suggests that it is important to view language contact situations as dynamic and involving two-way processes of change.

Documenting Unserdeutsch

Unserdeutsch, also known as Rabaul Creole German, is the only known German-lexifier creole. This critically endangered language has its origins in an orphanage in German New Guinea for mixed-race children, where Standard German was taught by mission personnel. Unserdeutsch was creolised in one generation, and became the in-group language of a small mixed-race community. It is now spoken by around 100 elderly speakers, nearly all immigrants to Australia. The current project is only the second documentation based on actual fieldwork and has a specific focus on the use and vitality of the language as used by the last generation of speakers. It has the aim of producing an Unserdeutsch corpus that will facilitate both future linguistic research and contact with the language for the descendants of Unserdeutsch speakers. Preliminary findings show variation among speakers along a continuum from heavily creolised basilect to an almost European German acrolect. Most of the lexicon is derived from German, while a number of basilectal grammatical constructions are the result of the loss of marked features in German and possible imperfect second language learning as well as relexification of Tok Pisin, the presumed substrate language.