The proliferative responses of natural killer (NK) cells to 12- O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), which directly activates protein kinase c (PKC), and to the Ca 2+ ionophores A23817 and ionomycin, known to enhance the intracellular calcium, have been investigated. Highly purified large granular lymphocytes (LGL) were cultured for 12–30 hr in the presence of TPA, ionomycin, or A23817. TPA alone (1–20 ng/ml) triggered rapid LGL proliferation, whereas the calcium ionophores were ineffective. The addition of either calcium ionophore to suboptimal doses or TPA (0.1 – 0.5 ng/ml) resulted in a synergistic effect on LGL proliferation. Under these conditions high levels of IL-2 activity were released by the LGL. Phenotypic analysis revealed the rapid loss of the Fcγ receptors (CD16) on LGL and the induction of the expression of IL-2 (CD25) and transferrin receptors and of HLA-DR, but not of CD3. Removal of extracellular Ca 2+ by addition of EGTA at the beginning of the culture greatly depressed LGL proliferation and IL-2 production, and blocked phenotypic changes, such as the expression of Tac antigen. Finally, progression to the proliferative phase of LGL, activated by TPA alone or with ionomycin, was completely abrogated by a hyperimmune anti-IL-2 antiserum.