Tire Steel Research Articles

Microstructure and Cyclic Deformation Behavior of Wheel and Tire Steels in Technically Relevant Heat Treatments

Abstract The present developments of rail-mounted traffic aim at higher speeds in the passenger and higher axle load in the freight traffic. As a consequence, a substantial increase of the loading of the wheels has to be regarded. Geometric changes at wheels and rails cause high cyclic loading in the dynamic system wheel/rail as a function of the course rate [1– 6]. Since for wheel steels only a few systematic investigations of the fatigue behavior are available so far, the actual investigations concentrate on the relation between the local microstructure and the description of the fatigue behavior of highly stressed wheel steels. As test materials monoblock wheel steels and tire steels were selected in accordance with UIC specification in technically relevant heat treatment conditions. The cyclic deformation behavior is characterized and evaluated by stress – strain hysteresis as well as thermometrical and electrical measurements.

Effect of recycled tyre steel fiber on flexural toughness, residual strength, and chloride permeability of high-performance concrete (HPC)

Owing to a high tensile strength and fatigue toughness, recycled tyre steel fiber (RSF) can be used as a potential fiber reinforcement to advance the ductility of high-performance concrete (HPC). In the present study, compressive strength, splitting-tensile strength, load-deflection behavior, flexural strength, flexural toughness, residual strength, and chloride-migration coefficient of HPC made with different doses of RSF was investigated. The performance of RSF was compared with manufactured steel fiber (MSF) at the same fiber volume. The results showed that in splitting-tensile test results, RSF was 54% to 75% effective as compared to MSF, while flexural-tensile results showed that RSF was 61% to 77% effective compared to MSF at the same fiber volume. Chloride permeability of both MSF and RSF-reinforced concrete was almost similar. The increase in electrical conductivity due to presence of metallic fibers caused a rise in the chloride permeability, however, the corrosion-potential risk of RSF-reinforced HPC was ‘low’.

Mechanical and Durability Performance of High‐Strength Concrete with Waste Tyre Steel Fibres

Concrete with various fibres has been in practice over the years now to improve the internal characteristics of concrete. In most of the developing countries, there is a high rate of waste tyres due to the importation of used cars. Waste tyres increase the environmental burden due to their resistance to decomposition in landfills. To have alternative disposal of waste tyres, their components of steel fibres were utilized in concrete to assess their effect on the mechanical and durability performance of high‐strength concrete with a target mean strength of 70 MPa. Fibres had a diameter of 1.3 mm and lengths of 30, 50, and 60 mm with fibre contents of 0.3, 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0% in each length. Slump tests were performed on fresh concrete with and without fibres. The mechanical performance variables assessed were compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, flexural toughness, residual strength, static modulus, and Poisson’s ratio. In addition, durability tests such as chloride ion penetration and absorption rate of water were investigated. The results showed that an increase in fibre length to 60 mm and a 1.0% fibre content resulted in the high bond strength in the concrete matrix resulting in a smaller crack width. Moreover, these fibre length and content resulted in improved tensile and flexural strength to 21.5% and 71.1% of control mix, respectively. The increase in fibre length and content affected both the durability properties and the flowability of the concrete, and as for length (60 mm) and 1% content, concrete had a slump of 77.8% lesser compared to the control mix. The compressive strength was improved to 15.2% for concrete with a fibre length of 50 mm and a fibre content of 0.5%. However, further increases in fibre content and length caused an increase in the number of weaker interfacial transition zones at the composite interface that reduces compressive stiffness, resulting in low compressive strength. Furthermore, the reduced fibre content and length (30 mm) improve the static modulus linearly up to 0.75% fibre content; however, concrete with a fibre length of 50 mm and content of 0.3% gives the best results.

Mechanical performance of alkali-activatedconcrete reinforced with recycled tire steel fibers

Alkali-activated/geopolymer composites have attracted interest of the research community in recent years. The popularity of alkali-activated composites is backed by the global pressure towards producing environmentally friendly construction materials and contributing to the effort of reducing the carbon dioxide footprint associated with ordinary Portland cement production. Various by-product materials (e.g., slag, fly ash and red mud) or natural resources (e.g., metakaolin) were utilized for producing alkali-activated concrete.Previous research conducted on various alkali-activated composites have shown satisfactory mechanical properties. The addition of manufactured steel fibers (MSF) to alkali-activated concrete mixtures have also been commonly used for improving its mechanical properties. Utilizing recycled tire steel fibers (RSF) from post-consumer tires, instead of MSF, have the potential to reduce costs and positively contribute to sustainability by reducing the CO2 emissions generated from manufacturing industrial steel fibers.Therefore, this research is investigating the role of RSF dosage on alkali-activated concretes mechanical properties. The experimental program included synthesis of metakaolin-fly ash based alkali-activated concrete specimens with various percentages of RSF. The performance of the RSF mixes was also compared against a mix with MSF. The prepared specimens were tested for the compressive stress–strain behavior, bond-slip relationship and residual compressive strength after exposure to elevated temperatures. Although the addition of RSF slightly influenced the compressive strength, it significantly enhanced the strain capacity at peak strength. The addition of RSF also reduced the deterioration in compressive strength after exposure to elevated temperatures.

Flexural behavior and finite element analysis of waste tires steel fiber reinforced concrete beams with basalt reinforcement

Waste Tire Steel Fiber(WTSF) was used in different proportions (0%, 0.5%).1% and 1.5%) were mixed with ordinary concrete to produce WTSF reinforced concrete. Based on basalt fiber reinforced polymer and WTSF concrete, a new structural system, WTSF concrete beam with basalt reinforcement, is proposed. On the basis of the theory test, using the ABAQUS finite element software to simulate basalt rebar waste of the bending properties of steel fiber concrete beam, to obtain the stress nephogram, cracking load, ultimate bearing capacity, load deflection curves and crack location map, comparative tests and fitting results show that WTSF volume content 0% less muscle damage, 0.5% for balance, 1% and 1.5% are superreinforced failure. With the increase of WTSF content, both cracking load and ultimate bearing capacity are improved. Meanwhile, theoretical calculation formulas of relevant components are given to guide engineering practice.

Compressive and flexural characteristics of geopolymer rubberized concrete reinforced with recycled tires steel fibers

The manufacturing of ordinary Portland cement concrete generates a large amount of carbon dioxide and causes air pollution. In recent years, geopolymer concrete has emerged as a sustainable alternative construction material with superior properties to conventional concrete, such as higher compressive strength, better acid and fire resistance, and lower creep and shrinkage. Similarly, incorporating waste tire materials such as rubber and steel fibers into concrete has shown the potential to enhance its flexibility and ductility. These improvements are desirable in some applications, such as slabs on grade and pavements, as they will reduce the environmental pollution caused by the landfilling of waste tires. This paper presents an investigation of the compressive and flexural behaviors of geopolymer concrete made with and without rubber and/or steel fibers. A blend of metakaolin and fly ash is employed as the binder material for the geopolymer concrete mixtures. Waste tire rubber (WTR) is substituted for 20% of the volume of conventional aggregates. In addition, a blend of industrial steel fibers (ISF) and waste tire steel fibers (WTSF) is used as internal reinforcement. In this study, it has been demonstrated that the synergy between WTR and steel fibers in geopolymer concrete can be used as the basis for a semi-flexible geopolymer concrete composite with adequate strength and improved ductility. It also has post-peak behavior, making it an ideal alternative construction material for industrial floors and pavement.

Enhancing the Static and Dynamic Properties of Fly Ash-Slag Based Strain-Hardening Geopolymer Composites Using Recycled Tyre Steel Fibres

Enhancing the Static and Dynamic Properties of Fly Ash-Slag Based Strain-Hardening Geopolymer Composites Using Recycled Tyre Steel Fibres

Dynamic compressive behaviour of recycled tyre steel fibre reinforced concrete

This paper presents a systematic experimental study on dynamic compressive behaviour of recycled tyre steel fibre (RTSF) reinforced concrete. The use of RTSF can not only enhance the mechanical properties and sustainability of cementitious materials but also reduce the environmental impact of waste tyres. A series of tests were conducted to investigate the effect of RTSF content (0.5%, 0.75%, 1.0% and 1.25%) on workability, air content and compressive strength of concrete as well as the dynamic compressive behaviour under various impact velocities (35, 55, 75, 95, 110 and 125 s−1). For comparisons, plain concrete without fibre and concrete reinforced with 1.0% industrial steel fibre (ISF) were regarded as the reference mixtures. The split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) was adopted to study the dynamic failure pattern, dynamic compressive strength, dynamic increase factor (DIF), energy dissipation and toughening mechanism. Results indicate that with increasing RTSF content, the slump of concrete was reduced while its air content was increased. At the same fibre content (1.0%), RTSF reinforced concrete exhibited a higher workability and air content than ISF reinforced concrete due to the different fibre shape and aspect ratio. The compressive strength of concrete at various strain rates went up with the increase of RTSF content from 0 to 0.75% but reduced with the further increase of RTSF content from 0.75% to 1.25%. DIFs of all mixtures were closely related to strain rate. The optimal dosage of RTSF for concrete was found to be 0.75%, considering workability, compressive strength, and dynamic compressive performance.

Development and Performance Evaluation of a Hand-Pushed Tiger Nut Harvester

Harvesting is one of the major problems encountered by tiger nut farmers in Nigeria. Manual harvesting system is the most commonly used method. This process is costly, labour intensive and time-consuming. The process does not also give farmers adequate returns to enable them to break even due to huge losses encountered. The objective of this study was to design, construct and evaluate a hand-pushed harvester that would eliminate the challenges being faced by small and medium tiger nut farmers during harvesting. Materials selection for constructing the harvester were based on their durability and availability, affordability and ease of replacement if damaged. They include mild steel (3 mm, 5 mm), 30 mm galvanized steel hollow pipe, 10 mm diameter steel rod, and 400 mm steel tyre. The developed harvester was evaluated at the experimental farm of the Institute for Agricultural Research (IAR). Results of the study show that the average field capacity ranges from 0.28 – 0.33 ha/h while the average field efficiency was between 77.78 – 80.49% depending on operating speed, moisture content and other properties of the soil. No field damage was recorded when the harvester was used as against an approximate 10.50% damage recorded in the manual harvesting method.

Recent Advances on Drawing Technology of Ultra-Fine Steel Tire Cord and Steel Saw Wire

Steel tire cord and steel saw wire represent typical precision pearlitic steel wire rods of wire products; it is a very important solar energy material with a diameter about 50 μm. This paper mainly discusses the research progress of the wire rod drawing process, and its main contents are as follows: First section—the control of the wire rod surface quality is summarized, including the thickness of the surface decarburization layer, the phase composition and thickness of the surface iron oxide scale, and the removal of surface iron oxide scale. Then, the research progress of the wire rod water bath treatment process during sorbitization is summarized. In addition, the development of brass plating technology for steel wire is summarized, including copper plating technology, coating phase composition, etc. Furthermore, the development of steel wire drawing methods is summarized. Finally, the development of the dies used in steel wire drawings is summarized.

Shear behaviour of E-UHPC containing recycled steel fibres and design of E-UHPC screw piles

The shear behaviour of Eco-Efficient Ultra-High Performance Concrete (E-UHPC) has not been investigated until now and this limits the potential applications for this material that uses low-cost and sustainable constituent materials including Recycled Tyre Steel Fibres (RTSF) and Recycled Tyre Steel Cords (RTSC). The potentially high shear resistance of E-UHPC could enable its use in more complex applications such as screw piles, something not easily achievable with conventional concrete. This study presents experimental and numerical work to address this research gap. It provides a detailed account of the experimental testing of 13 E-UHPC mixes containing various dosages of recycle steel fibres. Prismatic specimens are tested under an asymmetric four-point loading configuration and their deformation response is used to investigate the shear performance of the studied mixes. The shear stress – strain behaviour as well as shear modulus is determined. The results show that mixes containing RTSC can develop a high shear strength at the level of their flexural strength and comparable to that obtained from mixes with manufactured steel fibres. While mixes containing RTSF overall have lower shear strengths, high shear strengths can be achieved by using higher dosages of RTSF or using hybrid mixes of RTSF and RTSC. Shear strength prediction models based on flexural properties and fibres dosage are proposed for design purposes. An E-UHPC screw pile design model is developed for screw pile use in foundations of light and medium weight structures. Theoretical and physical modelling of the E-UHPC screw pile model is carried out and a design guideline is proposed. E-UHPC screw piles can offer various practical advantages, including rapid installation, immediate load carrying capability, minimal site disturbance, resistance to wide load applications, i.e. compression and tensile loads, and will solve the corrosion vulnerability of steel screw piles.

Mechanical properties and freeze-thaw resistances of bronze-concrete composites

Studies in the literature show that the physical and mechanical properties of concrete could be improved by the incorporation of different kinds of industrial waste, including waste tire rubber and tire steel. Recycling of waste is important for economic gain and to curb environmental problems. In this study, finely ground CuAl10Ni bronze is used to improve the physical and mechanical properties, and freeze-thaw resistances of C30 concrete. The density, cold crushing strength, 3-point bending strength, elastic modulus, toughness, and freeze-thaw resistances of concrete are determined. In addition, the Schmidt Rebound Hammer (SRH) and the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) tests, which are non-destructive test methods, are applied. SEM/EDX analyses are also carried out. It is noted that a more compacted structure of concrete is achieved with the addition of bronze sawdust. Then higher density and strength values are obtained for concretes that are produced by bronze addition. In addition, concretes including bronze sawdust generally show higher toughness due to high plastic energy capacities than pure concrete.

Evaluation comparison of wave amount measurement results in brass-plated tire steel cord using RMSE and cosine similarity

<span lang="IN">In the production process, quality checking is very important, one of which is on the wire. In the process of making brass-coated steel tire straps sometimes produce quality goods not in accordance with the desired standard values. Checks that are carried out manually have low efficiency and quite high errors occur. So it is necessary to check by measuring the wavelength on the brass plated steel cord automatically. In this study, used 3 automatic measurement methods using 2 evaluations, namely RMSE and Cosine Similarity. The results showed the best measurement using RMSE with method 2. Whereas the worst method uses RMSE with method 1. The smallest RMSE value is 0.0098 and the largest RMSE is 0.0966. The lowest Cosine Similarity value is 0.1253, while the highest Cosine Similarity value is 0.2079.</span>

The Durability of High‐Strength Concrete Containing Waste Tire Steel Fiber and Coal Fly Ash

The demands for high‐strength concrete (HSC) have been increasing rapidly in the construction industry due to the requirements of thin and durable structural elements. HSC is highly brittle. Therefore, to augment its ductility behavior, expensive fibers are used. These negative drawbacks of HSC can be controlled by incorporating waste materials into its manufacturing instead of conventional ones. Therefore, this study assessed the performance of HSC produced with different quantities of waste tire steel fiber (WSF) and fly ash (FA). WSF was used at two doses, namely, 0.5% and 1%, by volume in HSC, with low‐to‐medium volumes of FA, that is, 10%–35%. The studied durability parameters included rapid chloride permeability (RCP) and chloride penetration depth (CPD) by immersion method (28 and 120 days) and acid attack resistance (AAR) (28 and 120 days). Various basic mechanical properties of HSC were also analyzed, such as compressive strength (fCM), modulus of elasticity (ECM), splitting‐tensile strength (fCTM), and modulus of rupture (fCRM). The results revealed that the damaging effect of WSF on the RCP resistance of HSC is probably due to the high conductivity of steel fibers. However, test results of CPD showed that WSF produced insignificant changes in chloride permeability of HSC. Furthermore, when made with FA, WSF‐reinforced HSC yielded very low chloride permeability. Both WSF and FA contributed to the improvement in the AAR of HSC. WSF was highly useful to tensile properties while it showed minor effects on compressive properties (fCM and ECM). Optimum ductility and durability can be achieved with HSC incorporating 1% WSF and 10%–15% FA.

Analytical post-heating behavior of concrete-filled steel tubular columns containing tire rubber

This research focused on analyzing the post-fire behavior of high-performance concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) columns, with the concrete containing tire rubber and steel fibers, under axial compressive loading. The finite element (FE) modeling of such heated columns containing recycled aggregate is a branch of this field which has not received the proper attention of researchers. Better understanding the post-fire behavior of these columns by measuring their residual strength and deformation is critical for achieving the minimum repair level required for structures damaged in the fire. Therefore, to develop this model, 19 groups of confined and unconfined specimens with the variables including the volume ratio of steel fibers, tire rubber content, diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratio of the steel tube, and exposure temperature were considered. The ABAQUS software was employed to model the tested specimens so that the accurate behavior of the FE-modeled specimens could be examined under test conditions. To achieve desirable results for the modeling of the specimens, in addition to the novel procedure described in this research, the modified versions of models presented by previous researchers were also utilized. After the completion of modeling, the load-axial strain and load-lateral strain relationships, ultimate strength, and failure mode of the modeled CFST specimens were evaluated against the test data, through which the satisfactory accuracy of this modeling procedure was established. Afterward, using a parametric study, the effect of factors such as the concrete core strength at different temperatures and the D/t ratio on the behavior of the CFST columns was explored. Finally, the compressive strength values obtained from the FE model were compared with the corresponding values predicted by various codes, the results of which indicated that most codes were conservative in terms of these predictions.

Waste tires steel fiber in concrete: a review

The emergence of waste tire steel fiber (WTSF) which is an undervalued resource was borne out of the need to extract the useful materials in waste tires considering the sheer volume of this resource that is disposed of in landfills globally. These fibers find applications in tunnel linings, hydraulic structures, bridge decks, pavements and slope stabilization. The fiber length has positive influence on compressive strength (increased by more than 10%), flexural strength (increased by more than 50%) and split-tensile strength(increased by more than 30%) while slump and flow (increased by more than 80%) were reduced but can be avoided through careful mixing, reduction of coarse aggregates and utilization of short fibers. Utilization of WTSF contributes to the sustainability of the construction industry. This paper focuses on reviewing the contemporary management of waste tires, fresh and hardened properties of steel fibers extracted from the waste tires, usage of the steel fibers and the durability of concrete containing these fibers.

Engineering properties and sustainability assessment of recycled fibre reinforced rubberised cementitious composite

To provide an eco-friendly disposal way of increasingly accumulated waste tyres and reduce the environmental impact caused by the production of industrial fibres, this study explores the feasibility of using recycled tyre materials as substitutes for natural fine aggregates and manufactured fibres in cementitious mortar. The effects of crumb rubber (CR) replacement ratio (5%–15% by volume of fine aggregates), recycled tyre steel (RTS) fibre content (0.5–1.5 vol%) and recycled tyre polymer (RTP) fibre content (0.5–1.0 vol%) on the engineering properties of fibre reinforced cementitious composite (FRRC) were experimentally investigated. Results indicate that the pre-treated CR using NaOH solution is feasible to combine with a high dosage of recycled fibres without considerably weakening the workability, bulk density, ultrasonic pulse velocity and compressive strength of FRRC. The incorporation of CR, RTS fibre and RTP fibre together can reduce the drying shrinkage by up to 41.6% and enhance the flexural strength by at most 174% as compared to the plain mortar. The production cost, embodied carbon and embodied energy of FRRC are decreased by 13.3%–68.2% when replacing the manufactured fibres with recycled tyre fibres. The optimal content of CR and RTS fibre and RTP fibre is 5%–10%, 1.0 vol% and 0.5 vol%, respectively, considering the engineering properties, cost and environmental impact.

Engineering properties of strain hardening geopolymer composites with hybrid polyvinyl alcohol and recycled steel fibres

Strain hardening geopolymer composite (SHGC) is an alkali-activated material reinforced with randomly dispersed short fibres, which exhibits high ductility and strain hardening and multiple cracking behaviour. This paper presents an experimental study on the effect of hybrid polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and recycled tyre steel (RTS) fibres on engineering properties of fly ash-slag based SHGC cured at ambient temperature, including flowability, setting time, drying shrinkage, compressive strength and flexural behaviour in terms of stress–deflection response, first-crack strength and flexural strength, flexural toughness and toughening mechanisms. Four mix proportions of specimens with various volume fractions of hybrid PVA and RTS fibres including 1.5% PVA, 2% PVA, 1.75% PVA + 0.25% RTS and 1.5% PVA + 0.5% RTS were considered. The results indicated that the hybridisation of PVA fibre with RTS fibre led to a significant reduction in flowability, setting time and flexural strength of SHGC. However, the resistance to drying shrinkage and compressive strength of SHGC were greatly improved. Moreover, all specimens exhibited the expected deflection hardening behaviour with multiple stable microcracks formed over the tensile face of specimens under four-point bending. The addition of RTS fibre resulted in reduced crack widths in specimens where over 90% of cracks had a width of smaller than 60 μm. The mixture containing 2.0 vol% PVA fibre can be regarded as the optimal mixture for SHGC considering the strengths and deflection (or strain) hardening behaviour.

Mechanical performance of affordable and eco-efficient ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) containing recycled tyre steel fibres

This study aims to develop an affordable eco-efficient ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) using normal mortar, recycled tyre steel cords (RTSC) and recycled tyre steel fibres (RTSF). Twelve UHPC mixes containing either RTSC, RTSF or blends of the two in various ratios are studied for total fibre volumes of 2, 3 and 4%. The effect of short fibres and cleanliness of RTSF on flexural strength of UHPC is examined, and it is shown that rubber and other impurities, as well as fibres with less than 9 mm length, significantly reduce the strength of the UHPC mix. This confirms that cleaning and reducing the amount of short fibres is necessary for improved performance. Although mixes containing RTSF only do not exhibit the same flexural performance of mixes containing RTSC or manufactured fibres, similar strength can be achieved by using hybrids (RTSC and RTSF) or a higher dosage of RTSF. The main strength parameters used in serviceability and ultimate limit state design are experimentally derived and prediction models are proposed. A Material efficiency study of the mixes shows that use of RTSF in UHPC provides significant cost and environmental benefit. Such affordable and robust UHPC mixes can help develop new and more sustainable applications for the construction industry.

Eco-efficient preplaced recycled aggregate concrete incorporating recycled tyre waste

This experimental study explores the development of highly eco-efficient concrete. This concrete incorporates 50% higher coarse aggregate content compared with normal concrete, thus reducing cement demand, and its granular skeleton is entirely recycled. Moreover, it adopts a unique energy-efficient placement technique whereby the granular skeleton is first preplaced in the form and then injected with a flowing grout, which considerably reduces the energy of mixing and placement. Various mixtures incorporating recycled concrete aggregate along with recycled rubber granules and steel wire fibres retrieved from scrap tyres were made. The mechanical strength and post-cracking behaviour of the eco-efficient concrete were evaluated. While tyre rubber decreased mechanical strength as expected, scrap tyre steel wire fibres enhanced the tensile and flexural behaviour, exhibiting superior energy absorption and ductility compared to the brittle failure of the control mixture. The results provide an insight into the level of recycled tyre rubber and steel wire that could be combined with recycled concrete aggregate to achieve durable and cost-effective eco-efficient preplaced recycled aggregate and rubberised concrete for sustainable non-structural applications.