WO3 TiO2 Research Articles

WO3–TiO2 nanostructured thin film prepared by in situ hydrothermal method as the sensing material for liquid petroleum gas (LPG) detection

WO3–TiO2 nanostructured thin film prepared by in situ hydrothermal method as the sensing material for liquid petroleum gas (LPG) detection

Determination of gamma radiation shielding efficiency by radiation-resistant composite ZrO2–Al2O3 – TiO2–WO3 – Nb2O5 ceramics

This work examines the prospects of using composite ZrO2–Al2O3 – TiO2–WO3 – Nb2O5 ceramics as shielding and radiation-resistant materials as structural materials in conditions of heightened radiation background, including gamma radiation and exposure to heavy ions. The key objective of the study is to determine the impact of the variation in composite ceramic composition on resistance to radiation damage caused by exposure to heavy ions comparable to nuclear fuel fission fragments, and to establish the effect of the radiation damage accumulation on the shielding characteristics of these ceramics, the maintenance of which determines the stability of the operation of nuclear materials by eliminating the ionization factor caused by the interaction of gamma quanta. During the studies, it was found that alterations in the phase composition of composite ceramics associated with the formation of ZrTiO4, AlWO3 and Nb2W3O14 phases in the structure lead not only to strengthening of the ceramics, but also to a rise in resistance to radiation damage, and associated changes in the damaged layer degradation, having an adverse impact on the shielding characteristics.

Optical, structural, and electrical performance of CsPbIBr2 perovskites with zirconium doping and bilayer ETLs

This work studies the optoelectronic, and structural characteristics of CsPbIBr2 perovskite solar cells (PSCs) improved by 4 % Zirconium (Zr) doping and a bilayer electron transport layers (ETLs) composed of TiO2 and Zr-doped WO3. X-ray diffraction (XRD) examination of pure and Zr-doped CsPbIBr2 films revealed increased crystal size (39.2–41.2 nm) and lowered lattice constant following Zr doping, suggesting better crystallinity. The calculated energy band gap of pristine and Zr-doped CsPbIBr2 film decreases (1.986–1.926 eV), which improves the light absorption efficiency, while the increase in the refractive index implies that light is slowed down more as it passes through the material, which increases light trapping and absorption within the material. The XRD of Zr-WO3 ETL indicated a monoclinic crystal structure and increased lattice constant, allowing charge carrier transmission. Raman spectroscopy confirms the structural integrity of Zr-WO3. UV–Vis absorption spectra suggest enhanced absorption in the visible region and higher bandgap compared to Zr-doped CsPbIBr2. J-V tests reveal an efficiency rise from 8.54 % to 10.20 % with the proposed of double ETLs, exhibiting substantial breakthroughs in PSCs performance.

Vertical Growth of WO3 Nanosheets on TiO2 Nanoribbons as 2D/1D Heterojunction Photocatalysts with Improved Photocatalytic Performance under Visible Light

We report the construction of 2D/1D heterojunction photocatalysts through the hydrothermal growth of WO3 nanosheets on TiO2 nanoribbons for the first time. Two-dimensional WO3 nanosheets were vertically arrayed on the surface of TiO2 nanoribbons, and the growth density could be simply controlled by adjusting the concentration of the precursors. The construction of WO3/TiO2 heterojunctions not only decreases the band gap energy of TiO2 from 3.12 to 2.30 eV and broadens the photoresponse range from the UV region to the visible light region but also significantly reduces electron–hole pair recombination and enhances photo-generated carrier separation. Consequently, WO3/TiO2 heterostructures exhibit improved photocatalytic activity compared to pure WO3 nanosheets and TiO2 nanoribbons upon visible light irradiation. WO3/TiO2-25 possesses the highest photocatalytic activity and can remove 92.8% of RhB pollutants in 120 min. Both further increase and decrease in the growth density of WO3 nanosheets result in an obvious reduction in photocatalytic activity. The kinetic studies confirmed that the photocatalytic degradation of RhB follows the kinetics of the pseudo-first-order model. The present study demonstrates that the prepared WO3/TiO2 2D/1D heterostructures are promising materials for photocatalytic removal of organic pollutants to produce clean water.

A WO3–TiO2 nanorod/CaCO3 photocatalyst with degradation-regeneration double sites for NO2-inhibited and durable photocatalytic NO

As a promising cleaner technology for nitric oxide degradation, photocatalysis has attracted extensive attention, while the main limitations of photocatalytic nitric oxide are that the toxic NO2 is produced easily and the photocatalytic durability was inferior due to the accumulation of photocatalytic products. In this paper, a WO3–TiO2 nanorod/CaCO3 (TCC) insulating heterojunction photocatalyst with degradation-regeneration double sites was prepared by simple grinding and calcining. The effects of CaCO3 loading on the morphology, microstructure and composition of TCC photocatalyst were investigated by SEM, TEM, XRD, FT-IR and XPS etc. Also, TCC exhibits NO2-inhibited and durable characteristics for NO degradation. DFT calculation, the detection of active radicals by EPR, capture test and the NO degradation pathway characterized by in-situ FT-IR spectra showed that the electron-rich region formed and the existence of regeneration sites are the main reasons for promoting the NO2-inhibited and durable NO degradation. Furthermore, the mechanism of NO2-inhibited and durable NO degradation by TCC was revealed. Finally, TCC superamphiphobic photocatalytic coating was prepared, which still exhibits similar NO2-inhibited and durable characteristics for NO degradation to TCC photocatalyst. It may provide new application value and development prospects in the field of photocatalytic NO.

Effect of WO3 on the radiation shielding ability of TeO2–TiO2–WO3 glass system

Abstract In this study, glass composition based on tungsten oxide (WO3) doped tellurium, titanium glasses: (100 − x − y) TeO2–xTiO2–yWO3: where (x = 5) and (y = 5, 10, 15, 20, 25) coded as TT5W5, TT5W10, TT5W15, TT5W20, and TT5W25 were investigated for shielding properties against ionizing radiation. Gamma radiation shielding parameters such as mass attenuation coefficients (MAC) are calculated through MCNPx code and Phy-X/PSD software in the energy range of 0.015–15 MeV. Obtained MAC values are then used to calculate other gamma radiation shielding parameters such as mean free path (MFP) and effective atomic number (Z eff). Besides this, the exposure buildup factor (EBF) was also calculated by using EXABCal software at different penetration depths (PDs) in the energy range of 0.015–15 MeV. Sample TT5W25, which has a larger WO3 content of 25 mol% shows higher values of MAC and lower values of MFP among all the examined glass samples. Our investigated TeO2–TiO2–WO3 glass samples possess the lowest MFP values in comparison with the different types of concretes and commercially available shielding glasses. In addition, fast neutron shielding characteristics in light of fast neutron removal cross-section have also been computed. Glass sample TT5W25 possesses the higher values of fast neutron removal cross-section as compared to the other glass samples. The results indicate that the adding up of WO3 improves shielding against the fast neutron and gamma radiation.

Construction of WO3 quantum dots/TiO2 nanowire arrays type II heterojunction via electrostatic self-assembly for efficient solar-driven photoelectrochemical water splitting.

Construction of a heterojunction between quantum dots and TiO2 nanowire arrays via electrostatic self-assembly is rarely reported. In this work, mercury lamp irradiation was used to change the surface potential of WO3 quantum dots and TiO2 nanowire arrays, resulting in WO3 quantum dots tightly attached on the surface of TiO2 nanowire through electrostatic self-assembly. Photoelectrochemical measurements showed that the WO3 quantum dots formed a type II heterojunction with the TiO2 nanowire arrays rather than serving as carrier-trapping sites. In the self-assembly system, the TiO2 nanowire arrays provide a charge-transfer channel for the WO3 quantum dots, greatly improving the contribution of the WO3 quantum dots to the photocurrent. Quantitative calculations showed that the improvement of the bulk carrier-separation efficiency was the reason for the enhanced photoelectrochemical performance of the self-assembled system. The photocurrent density of the optical self-assembled system at 1.23 V (vs. RHE) was ∼5.5 times as high as that of the TiO2 nanowire arrays. More importantly, the self-assembled system exhibited excellent photoelectrochemical stability.

Fabrication and photocatalytic performance of WO3/TiO2 heterojunction composites

The rutile TiO2 microspheres and WO3 nanosheets were both synthesized via the hydrothermal treatment and the type-II WO3/TiO2 heterojunction with different mass ratios (1:2, 1:5, and 1:8) was prepared by a simple physical mixing method. The photocatalytic performance of the photocatalysts was investigated by the degradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) dye under simulated sunlight irradiation. Compare with pure TiO2 and WO3, the WO3/TiO2 with a mass ratio of 1:5 exhibited the highest photocatalytic efficiency of 91.5% within 60 min. The active species trapping experiment revealed that holes (h+) and superoxide radical (·O2−) played main roles in the degradation process. The unique type-II WO3/TiO2 heterojunction not only extended the light absorption range, but also promoted charge carriers transfer and separation, leading to the enhancement of photocatalytic activity.

Composite nanostructures of black TiO2/WO3 on rGO nanosheets for photoelectrochemical water splitting

A uniform dispersion of black TiO2 nanoparticles and WO3 nanorods on rGO nanosheets was assessed for its photoelectrochemical water splitting activity. A facile solution-based approach was employed to synthesize the black TiO2 nanoparticles and WO3 nanorods, whereas the modified Hummer's method was used to prepare the rGO nanosheets. The composite nanostructure was obtained using a solvothermal approach. Visible light absorption was improved significantly, and the bandgap was narrowed for nanocomposites (1.76 eV) than W-TiO2 nanoparticles (3.10 eV). The structural changes were validated using various analytical techniques like XRD, Raman, and XPS analysis. The morphology of the individual constitutions and composites was examined by TEM. Photoelectrochemical analysis showed that the composite nanostructures of black TiO2/WO3/rGO exhibited enhanced water splitting activity under visible light irradiation (0.83 mA cm−2 at 0 V). This enhancement was attributed mainly to the more efficient photoinduced charge (electron–hole) separation and transportation involved in the composite nanostructures.

Deep understanding in physical and electrochemical performance of WO3–TiO2 nanocomposite thin films deposited onto ITO and FTO coated glass substrates using a thermionic vacuum arc deposition system

In this work, WO3–TiO2 nanocomposite thin films were deposited via thermonic vacuum arc technique and the physical and electrochemical features of these nanocomposites were investigated. The average transmittance values were obtained 66.9% and 58.7%, particularly the mean absorbance values were 0.49 and 0.59 onto ITO and FTOcoated glass substrate. The optical band gap of the layers were calculated 2.59 and 2.62 eV upon ITO and FTO coated glass substrates, respectively. Measurement outputs show that both coated thin films are conductive and good storage capabilities for Li+ ions. The reversibility of the films is calculated at 7% and 15% on ITO coated glass and FTO coated glass substrates, respectively. Considering that WO3 and TiO2 materials separately show high quality electrochromic properties, it is aimed to produce these two materials as composites and to examine their electrochromic properties using different producing techniques.

Preparation and characterization of MnIn-layered double hydroxides (LDHs), extension of the synthesis to fabricate MnM(III)-LDHs (M = Al, Sc, Cr, Fe, Ga), and the comparison of their photocatalytic and catalytic activities in the oxidation of hydroquinone

The preparation of a new member of the hydrotalcite supergroup, i.e., MnIn-LDHs with Mn:In molar ratios from 5:2 to 8:2 was developed for the first time, by using the co-precipitation technique. The effect of the presence of air, N2 or H2 was systematically tested. The physico-chemical properties of the solids were characterized in detail. The application of reductive atmosphere proved to be vital for achieving phase-pure products. While the thermal behavior of the LDHs with different Mn:In molar ratios were largely similar, the increasing Mn:In ratio resulted in decreasing direct optical band gaps from 4.06 to 3.14 eV. By using the optimized conditions found for MnIn-LDHs, Mn4M(III)-LDHs were also prepared with M = Al, Sc, Cr, Fe, Ga. The catalytic performance of the various Mn(II)-based LDHs were tested under dark and UV–Vis-illuminated conditions for the transformation of hydroquinone in acetonitrile medium. The photocatalytic mechanism over MnIn-LDHs was studied by radical trapping tests, indicating the photogenerated holes play an important role in the decomposition of hydroquinone and even benzoquinone. The incorporation of Sc(III), Cr(III) and Fe(III) resulted in catalysts with outstanding performance both with and without illumination; under these conditions several metal oxides/semiconductors (like BiVO4, Bi2WO6, SrTiO3, Bi2O3, SnO2, WO3, In2O3, ZnO and Degussa P25 TiO2) and even the nonmetallic g-C3N4 proved to be inactive. The largest photocatalytic contributions were measured for the Mn4Cr- and Mn4In-LDHs. The selectivity and yield of the benzoquinone formation was found to be the largest in the case of the Mn4Al-, Mn4Fe- and Mn4In-LDHs using UV–Vis light source.

Catalytic activity of photocharged binary TiO2 and WO3 membrane filters: Effect of Al2O3 interlayer on direct vs. mediated electron transfers

One of the challenges facing the practical application of photocatalysis is the termination of catalytic reactions in the absence of irradiation. This study synthesizes photo-charged TiO2/WO3 (TW) and TiO2/Al2O3/WO3 (TAW) membrane filters and compares their dark catalytic activities for Cr(VI) reduction and As(III) oxidation without any chemical reagent. The Cr(VI) reduction via direct electron transfer is 13-fold enhanced when TW is replaced with TAW. The time-resolved photoluminescence reveals that this kinetic enhancement is attributed to the prolonged lifetime of the electrons stored within the charged TAW. Nevertheless, the As(III) oxidation via mediated electron transfer with O2•− is significantly inhibited with the charged TAW. Alumina effectively offsets the negative surface charges of the TW, influencing the adsorption of both As(III) and As(V) and interfering with the O2 reduction. This leads to the inhibited O2 reduction and the retarded production of the reactive oxygen species with the photo-charged TAW.

Fabrication of visible-light assisted TiO2-WO3-PANI membrane for effective reduction of chromium (VI) in photocatalytic membrane reactor

In this work, TiO 2-WO3(40:1) nanoparticles were hydrothermally prepared and, embedded in Polyaniline (PANI) membrane with varying concentrations (3–7 wt%) and, used in photocatalytic membrane reactor for the removal of Cr(VI) from the aqueous solutions. 4-methyl piperidine (4-MP) was used as a gel inhibiting agent in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) solvent to prepare PANI-based flat-sheet membranes by phase inversion method. Through different characterization technique, it has been found that TiO 2-WO3 incorporated PANI membranes showed enhanced membrane properties like better hydrophilicity, better antifouling properties, higher water uptake, lower contact angle, higher porosity, and better heavy metal removal efficiency compared to bare PANI membranes. PANI membrane with 5 wt% TiO 2-WO3 exhibited a percentage rejection of 98.50% within 60 min at 0.5 MPa transmembrane pressure. Cr(VI) reduction under light and dark conditions was performed in a dead-end filtration cell with a quartz window at the top and the 5 wt% TiO 2-WO3– PANI membrane showed 67.32% reduction under visible light. TiO 2-WO3 incorporated PANI nanofiltration membranes can act as an integrated system consists of a short-circuited photo-anode and cathode under visible light irradiation. Overall, TiO 2-PANI membranes promote Cr(VI) reduction to Cr(III) in the photocatalytic membrane reactor and exhibits a better self-cleaning property.

Catalytic hydrothermal co-gasification of canola meal and low-density polyethylene using mixed metal oxides for hydrogen production

Canola meal is a low-value agricultural residue obtained after oil extraction from canola, the utilization of which requires further attention. On the other hand, plastic waste disposal is also another leading issue that creates severe environmental challenges. Supercritical water gasification is considered an environmentally friendly technology to produce hydrogen from plastic residues and organic wastes. This study deals with hydrothermal co-gasification of canola meal and plastic wastes (i.e., low-density polyethylene) while exploring the influence of temperature (375–525°C), residence time (15–60 min) and plastic-to-biomass ratio (0:100, 20:80, 50:50, 80:20 and 100:0) on hydrogen yield. Maximum hydrogen yield (8.1 mmol/g) and total gas yield (17.9 mmol/g) were obtained at optimal temperature and residence time of 525°C and 60 min, respectively. A change in the gas yield with variable plastic-to-biomass ratio showed synergistic effects between both feedstocks. The trend of catalytic performance towards improving hydrogen yield was in the following order: WO3–TiO2 (18.5 mmol/g) > KOH (16.9 mmol/g) > TiO2 (9.5 mmol/g) > ZrO2 (7.8 mmol/g) > WO3–ZrO2 (7.4 mmol/g).

New CeO2–TiO2, WO3–TiO2 and WO3–CeO2–TiO2 mesoporous aerogel catalysts for the low temperature selective catalytic reduction of NO by NH3

New mesoporous and well-structured aerogel catalysts (CeO2–TiO2, WO3–TiO2 and WO3–CeO2–TiO2) were elaborated via the sol–gel method, characterized by means of various techniques (XRD; N2-Physisorption at 77 K; NH3-TPD; H2-TPR; DRUV–Vis spectroscopy) and evaluated in the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NO by NH3. The results reveal that all the aerogel catalysts develop essentially the diffraction peaks of TiO2 anatase phase and are classified as mesoporous materials with a high surface area (70 < SBET < 106 m2 g−1), large porosity (0.27 < VPT < 0.46 cm3 g−1) and nanometer size of crystallites (8–15 nm). The addition of Ce and/or W influences differently the structure, texture, crystallites size, surface oxygen concentration, total acidity and redox ability of aerogel samples and clearly affects their NO-SCR activity which follows this order: TiO2 < WO3–TiO2 < CeO2–TiO2 < WO3–CeO2–TiO2. It was also found that cerium species are more active in the low temperature NO-SCR reaction than tungsten ones (NO conversions obtained at 300 °C using CeO2–TiO2 and WO3–TiO2 were 75 and 0%, respectively). On the other hand, it was suggested that the interactions between Ce and W species play a key role in improving the reactivity of WO3–CeO2–TiO2 catalyst in the SCR of NO by NH3. Interestingly, the NO conversion into N2 reaches 85% at 300 °C and exceeds 90% between 320 and 400 °C over this novel meso-structured aerogel catalyst.

Promotional effect of ceria on the catalytic behaviour of new V2O5–WO3–TiO2 aerogel solids for the DeNOx process

New cerium and/or tungsten modified V2O5–TiO2 aerogel catalysts (V2O5–TiO2,V2O5–WO3–TiO2, V2O5–CeO2–TiO2 and V2O5–WO3–CeO2–TiO2) were successfully developed, by associating the sol gel procedure and supercritical drying approach. A combination of various analytical techniques, including XRD, N2-Physisorption at 77 ​K, DRUV-Vis spectroscopy, NH3-TPD and H2-TPR, was used to characterize the obtained solids. Their catalytic performances were evaluated in the low temperature NO-SCR by NH3. The results reveal that all the materials exhibit high cristallinity of TiO2 anatase phase and developed mesoporous texture. The addition of tungsten (W) increases the surface acidity of V2O5–TiO2 and thereby enhances its reactivity at high temperatures (>420 ​°C). However, the addition of cerium (Ce) improves the redox properties of the latter catalyst and increases significantly its NO-SCR reactivity, especially at low temperatures. The NO-SCR activity increases over the aerogel systems, in the 200–400 ​°C temperature range, following this order: V2O5–WO3–TiO2 ​< ​V2O5–TiO2 ​< ​V2O5–CeO2–TiO2 ​< ​V2O5–WO3–CeO2–TiO2. The new V2O5–WO3–CeO2–TiO2 system was found to be the most active catalyst for converting NO into N2 (with 60% and 90% NO conversions at 250 ​°C and between 320 and 420 ​°C, respectively). The highest SCR activity of this new aerogel solid if compared to the other samples was essentially correlated with a good reactivity of its acidic and redox sites which in turn was related to the existence of strong interactions between cerium and the other active elements (mostly Ce↔ V and Ce ↔ W).

Tuned S-Scheme Cu2S_TiO2_WO3 Heterostructure Photocatalyst toward S-Metolachlor (S-MCh) Herbicide Removal.

A dual S-scheme Cu2S_TiO2_WO3 heterostructure was constructed by sol–gel method using a two-step procedure. Due to the synthesis parameters and annealing treatment the heterostructure is characterized by sulfur deficit and oxygen excess allowing the passivation of oxygen vacancies. The photocatalytic activity was evaluated under UV and UV–Vis irradiation scenarios using S-MCh as reference pollutant. The heterostructure is composed on orthorhombic Cu2S, anatase TiO2 and monoclinic WO3 with crystallite sizes varying from 65.2 Å for Cu2S to 97.1 Å for WO3. The heterostructure exhibit a dense morphology with pellets and particle-like morphology closely combined in a relatively compact assembly. The surface elemental composition indicate that the heterostructure maintain a similar atomic ratio as established during the synthesis with a slight sulfur deficit due to the annealing treatments. The results indicate that the three-component heterostructure have higher photocatalytic efficiency (61%) comparing with two-component heterostructure or bare components. Moreover, Cu2S_TiO2_WO3 exhibit a superior constant rate (0.114 s−1) due to the high concentration of photogenerated charge carriers, efficient charge separation and migration.

Facile Hydrothermal Synthesis of Tungsten Tri-oxide/Titanium Di-oxide Nanohybrid Structures as Photocatalyst for Wastewater Treatment Application

In this study, tungsten trioxide/titanium dioxide (WO3–TiO2) nanohybrid structures were prepared using a facile hydrothermal method. The nanosheets-like morphology was achieved for the prepared WO3–TiO2 nanohybrid that were confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. Provided X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy results also confirm the element existence and surface composition of the nanohybrid structure. The optical properties of the WO3–TiO2 nanohybrid were verified using UV–Visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV–Vis DRS) and photoluminescence spectroscopy. The UV–Vis DRS results indicated that the absorption edge for the WO3–TiO2 nanohybrid found a red shift towards the visible region due to the reduced bandgap (2.83 eV). The photocatalytic activity of the as-prepared WO3–TiO2 nanohybrid was evaluated by the photocatalytic degradation of Orange G dye in wastewaters under visible light. 94% Orange G dye was degraded in 210 min at neutral pH in the presence of WO3–TiO2 nanohybrid, which indicates the enhanced photocatalytic activity. The photo-luminescence technique has also confirmed the formation of –OH radicals during photodegradation by utilizing terephthalic acid as a probe molecule. These results indicate that the prepared nanohybrid material is a simple, low-cost, and efficient photocatalyst for the degradation of pollutants in wastewater treatment applications.

Tuning of electrocatalytic activity of WO3–TiO2 nanocomposite electrode for alkaline hydrogen evolution reaction

The study reports the synthesis of mesoporous WO3–TiO2 nanocomposite with tuned particle size (~7 nm), pore diameter (~4.9 nm), specific surface area (SBET = 129.112 m2/g) and pore volume (Vtot = 0.185 cm3/g) by an acid catalyzed peptization method, and its utilization for the development of stable catalytic electrode with enhanced activity towards alkaline hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). The SEM and AFM analyses confirm the formation of good quality composite electrodes with improved surface roughness through electroless deposition method. The developed WO3–TiO2 nanocomposite electrode exhibits low overpotential value of 120 mV with an exchange current density of 6.20 × 10−5 mA/cm2, and a low Tafel slope value of 98 mV/dec. Apart from the high HER performance, the developed WO3–TiO2 nanocomposite electrode exhibits competency with the state-of-the-art electrode materials for alkaline HER in industrial processes with sustained catalytic activity, tolerance behavior and long-term stability.

VOCs Sensing by Metal Oxides, Conductive Polymers, and Carbon-Based Materials.

This review summarizes the recent research efforts and developments in nanomaterials for sensing volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The discussion focuses on key materials such as metal oxides (e.g., ZnO, SnO2, TiO2 WO3), conductive polymers (e.g., polypyrrole, polythiophene, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)), and carbon-based materials (e.g., graphene, graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes), and their mutual combination due to their representativeness in VOCs sensing. Moreover, it delves into the main characteristics and tuning of these materials to achieve enhanced functionality (sensitivity, selectivity, speed of response, and stability). The usual synthesis methods and their advantages towards their integration with microsystems for practical applications are also remarked on. The literature survey shows the most successful systems include structured morphologies, particularly hierarchical structures at the nanometric scale, with intentionally introduced tunable “decorative impurities” or well-defined interfaces forming bilayer structures. These groups of modified or functionalized structures, in which metal oxides are still the main protagonists either as host or guest elements, have proved improvements in VOCs sensing. The work also identifies the need to explore new hybrid material combinations, as well as the convenience of incorporating other transducing principles further than resistive that allow the exploitation of mixed output concepts (e.g., electric, optic, mechanic).