Time-sampling Procedure Research Articles

Age-related changes in preschool children's systematic use of private speech in a natural setting

This study set out to explore the contexts in which preschool children use private speech, or self-talk, in the naturalistic setting of the preschool classroom, and age-related changes in the contexts in which preschoolers talk to themselves. A total of 2752 naturalistic observations of fourteen three-year-old and fourteen four-year-old children were conducted using a time-sampling procedure in two preschool classrooms over the course of one semester. Results from logistic regression analyses revealed that both age groups were (a) more likely to use private speech during the self-selected activity classroom context as opposed to both large group and outside free play classroom contexts, and (b) most likely to talk to themselves when alone, next likely in the presence of peers, and least likely when in the presence of a teacher. Although the probability of private speech among three-year-old children did not vary as a function of the child's immediate activity, four-year-old children's private speech was more likely to occur during sustained and focused goal-directed activity as opposed to rapidly-changing and non goal-directed activity. The findings suggest that private speech appears systematically in young children and that, in several ways, four-year-old children use private speech more selectively than three-year-olds.

Effect of the Dopamine D 1/5 Antagonist SCH 23390 on the Acquisition of Conditioned Fear

The authors previously reported that typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs inhibited the acquisition but not expression of conditioned fear. The present study examined the effects of the selective dopamine D 1/5 agonist (SKF 38393) and antagonist (SCH 23390) on the acquisition and expression of conditioned fear. Drugs were administered subcutaneously to male Sprague–Dawley rats 30 min before foot shock (2.5 mA for 5 min). Twenty-four hours after foot shock, rats were again placed and observed in the shock chamber without shocks (conditioned fear). Freezing behavior induced by conditioned fear, an index of anxiety or fear, was recorded using a time-sampling procedure. SCH 23390 (0.1–1 mg/kg) inhibited the acquisition of conditioned freezing. The administration of SCH 23390 at a dose of 0.1 mg/kg 30 min after foot shock did not affect conditioned freezing. Taken together, it is concluded that D 1/5 antagonism inhibits the acquisition of conditioned fear. SKF 38393 (3–20 mg/kg) failed to change the acquisition of conditioned fear. SCH 23390 or SKF 38393 administered prior to testing did not reduce the expression of conditioned fear. These results suggest that D 1/5 receptors may play a role in the development of fear or anxiety.

Effects of the benzodiazepine antagonist flumazenil on conditioned fear stress in rats

1. 1. The authors investigated the effect of the benzodiazepine receptor antagonist flumazenil on freezing behavior induced by conditioned fear stress and used a time-sampling procedure. 2. 2. Rats were individually subjected to 5 min of inescapable electric footshock in a shock chamber. Twenty-four hours after the footshock, the rats were again placed in the shock chamber and observed for 5 min without shocks: this procedure is termed conditioned fear stress. 3. 3. Subcutaneous administration of flumazenil (10 mg/kg) 30 min before conditioned fear stress reduced conditioned freezing, while flumazenil (1–10 mg/kg) 30 min before footshock did not. This indicates that flumazenil reduced the expression of conditioned fear, suggesting an anxiolytic effect of flumazenil. 4. 4. This effect may be attributable to antagonism by flumazenil to endogenous inverse agonist-like ligands for benzodiazepine receptors. It is suggested that endogenous inverse agonist-like ligands for benzodiazepine receptors are involved in the expression of conditioned fear stress.

Measurement of Rodent Stereotyped Behavior

This unit presents a quantitative, observational method for the assessment of rodent stereotyped behavior which consists of motor responses that are repetitive, invariant, and seemingly without purpose or goal. The most classic behavioral pattern that is characteristic of stereotypy is that elicited by high doses of stimulants, such as cocaine and amphetamine, in rats, although it can also occur in response to other drugs or neurotoxic treatments affecting the basal ganglia. An observational time-sampling procedure is described in which animals are observed and rated by an experimenter, who is blind to treatment, at regular time points over the course of a behavioral testing period. The frequency of different behaviors is measured by scoring the presence or absence of a given behavior during predetermined time bins. The apparatus and test procedures are described, and a comprehensive list of commonly observed behaviors that may appear as stereotyped is provided. In addition to being ideally suited to the measurement of stereotypy, the protocol can be adapted to sampling many forms of spontaneous behaviors, including locomotion, rearing, grooming, eating, and drinking. Samples of behavioral checklists and scoring sheets are also provided.

Inhibition of Grooming by Pilocarpine Differs in High- and Low-Yawning Sublines of Sprague–Dawley Rats

A comparative study of the effect of pilocarpine, a muscarinic receptor agonist, on grooming, scored during 45 min via a time-sampling procedure, was carried out on two sublines of male rats selectively bred for high-(HY) and low-yawning (LY) frequency. In one condition, we introduced rats in a novel cage and observed them immediately after receiving an IP injection of pilocarpine (0.5-3.75 mg/Kg) or an equivalent volume of saline. Besides grooming, the occurrence of yawns was continuously recorded. In the other condition, we immersed rats in water for 60 s, then they received an IP injection of pilocarpine (3.75 mg/Kg) or an equivalent volume of saline and we placed them in an open field, in which we recorded the number of crossed squares. Grooming scores were significantly higher in the condition after water immersion than in the novel situation; in both conditions HY had a grooming response higher than that of LY rats. Pilocarpine produced a dose-dependent inhibition of novelty-induced grooming in HY rats, whereas LY grooming was reduced only with the highest dose. In contrast, yawning increased in a dose-dependent manner with HY rats curve over that of LY animals, except for the highest dose. Pilocarpine inhibited water immersion-induced grooming in both sublines of rats, but it did not reduce grooming as much as it did in the novel condition. Pilocarpine affected distinctly each of the components of grooming, without inhibiting animals locomotor activity. The results indicate that HY rats also have a higher number of grooms than LY rats, and because grooming and yawning can appear after stressful circumstances, HY rats may be used to study the role that both behaviors could have in counteracting the effects of stress. Similarly, HY animals might be utilized to study the underlying neurochemical mechanisms of grooming. This study also indicates that the cholinergic systems exert an inhibitory influence on grooming which contrasts with the excitatory effect on yawning.

Classrooms matter: relations between the classroom environment and the social and mastery behavior of five-year-old children with disabilities

One hundred and fifteen children with disabilities (42 with Down syndrome, 37 with motor impairment, and 36 with developmental delays) were observed in a total of 115 classrooms. Categories for coding children's behaviors in mastery tasks, social activities with peers, and compliance with teachers were recorded by trained observers, blind to the study hypotheses using a modified time sampling procedure. Composite scores representing (1) engagement and skill in completing mastery tasks, (2) engagement and skill in social interaction with peers, and (3) compliance with teachers were constructed from the observation categories. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that specific classroom characteristics (i.e., class size, inclusiveness of class enrollment, teacher-child ratio, and percentage of time spent in one-on-one instruction) predicted performance on these behaviors above and beyond children's cognitive performance.

Effect of the selective CCK B receptor antagonist LY288513 on conditioned fear stress in rats

In order to investigate the involvement of cholecystokinin (CCK) in the regulation of anxiety, the effect of the selective non-peptide CCK B receptor antagonist LY288513 ((4 S,5 R)- N-(4-bromophenyl)-3-oxo-4,5-diphenyl-1-pyrazolidinecarboxamide) on freezing behavior induced by conditioned fear stress was examined using a time-sampling procedure. Rats were individually subjected to 5 min of inescapable electric footshock in a shock chamber. Twenty-four hours after the footshock, the rats were again placed in the shock chamber and observed for 5 min without shocks: this procedure is termed conditioned fear stress. Subcutaneous administration of LY288513 30 min before footshock (0.3 mg/kg) and 30 min before conditioned fear stress (0.03–0.3 mg/kg) reduced conditioned freezing. This indicates that LY288513 blocked both the acquisition and expression of conditioned fear. The relatively selective non-peptide CCK A receptor antagonist, lorglumide ( d,l-4-(3,4-dichlorobenzoylamino)-5-(diphentylamino)-5-oxo-pentanoic acid), blocked the expression of conditioned fear, though only at a high dose (1.0 mg/kg). The peripheral non-peptide CCK A B receptor antagonist, loxiglumide ( d,l-4-(3,4-dichlorobenzoylamino)-5-( N-3-methoxypropyl-pentylamino)-5-oxo-pentanoic acid), failed to do so. These results suggest that brain CCK B receptors are involved in the regulation of anxiety.

Serotonergic activation reduces defensive freezing in the conditioned fear paradigm

Our previous study showed that conditioned fear stress (CFS) increased serotonin (5-HT) metabolism in the medial prefrontal cortex and induced freezing behavior. Although these results could support the 5-HT hypothesis of anxiety, the functional significance of the 5-HT response to stress is unclear. In this study, the effects of 5-HT reuptake inhibitors, agonists, antagonists, and diazepam on freezing behavior induced by CFS were examined using a time-sampling procedure. Various doses of test compounds were administered subcutaneously to rats 24 h after the last session of repeated foot-shock for 5 days. Rats were again placed in the shock chamber without shocks 20 min after injections of drugs, and observed. Diazepam (1 mg/kg) and the 5-HT 1A agonist ipsapirone (0.5–10 mg/kg) significantly inhibited freezing behavior. l-5-Hydroxytryptophan (with benserazide) and the selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor citalopram (10 mg/kg) reduced freezing behavior. The 5-HT 2 antagonists ICI169,369 and ketanserin failed to change freezing behavior. p-Chlorophenylalanine (200 mg/kg) administered 15 h before the test did not affect freezing. The effect of ipsapirone was not modified in rats with lesions of 5-HT neurons, produced by p-chloroamphetamine (2 × 10 mg/kg). In conclusion, these results suggest the anxiolytic potential of ipsapirone and citalopram, and support the hypothesis that the facilitation of 5-HT neurotransmission decreases anxiety.

Serotonergic stimulation of the ventrolateral striatum induces orofacial stereotypy

Dopaminergic (DA) stimulation of the ventrolateral Striatum produces a syndrome of intense orofacial stereotypies. In addition to dopaminergic projections from the substantia nigra, the Striatum receives Serotonergic (5-HT) inputs arising from the raphe nuclei. To assess the putative role of striatal 5-HT in orofacial movements, serotonin (0, 0.2, 2, 10, 20 μg/1.0 μl) was infused into the ventrolateral Striatum and behaviors were recorded using a time-sampling procedure. Serotonin produced a dose-dependent, site-specific increase in stereotyped orofacial behaviors. Infusion of selective 5-HT receptor agonists or uptake inhibitors did not produce the orofacial syndrome and pretreatment with either selective or nonselective 5-HT receptor antagonists did not block the 5-HT induced Stereotypy. In contrast, pretreatment with DA receptor antagonists completely abolished the 5-HT induced repetitive orofacial movements, providing evidence for a 5-HT/DA interaction at this site. Moreover, depletion of DA with a combination of reserpine and α-methyl- p-tyrosine markedly decreased the stereotyped behaviors induced by 5-HT microinfusion. These data provide evidence for an interaction between 5-HT and DA in the Striatum at presynaptic DA terminals. It is hypothesized that 5-HT may cause release of DA via reversal of the DA transporter. This syndrome may provide an animal model for some aspects of obsessive-compulsive disorder, because current theories of this disorder implicate 5-HT dysfunction in the basal ganglia.

Private Speech in the Classroom: The Effects of Activity Type, Presence of Others, Classroom Context, and Mixed-age Grouping

This study addressed the question of how young children's spontaneous use of private speech in the kindergarten classroom varies as a function of contextual variables, such as type of activity, immediate presence of others, degree of teacher-given structure, and classroom age composition. Twenty children from two classrooms (one mixed-age, one same-age) were systematically observed in their regular kindergarten classroom during a period of four weeks, using a time-sampling procedure. Results from ANOVA, chi-square, and logistic regression analyses indicated that young children's use of private speech does vary systematically according to the immediate physical and social context. More specifically, children were found to use more self-regulatory language when they were: (1) engaged in goal-directed task activity, as compared to free play or other activities; (2) in a classroom context which provided an intermediate degree of teacher regulation, compared to contexts in which either very little or a great deal of external structure was present; and (3) with their younger classmates, compared to either their same-age or older peers. No differences in overall private speech usage were found between the mixed-age and same-age classes. Frequency of private speech did not vary significantly depending on whether children were alone, with other children, or with adults. Classroom contexts vary in the degree to which they promote self-direction. This study suggests that if one is interested in fostering young children's development of self-regulation or in observing children's use of private speech, the optimum context is one which provides an intermediate amount of structure and allows children to spontaneously engage in challenging goal-directed activity.

Caregiver-Child Interactions in Japan, Taiwan, and the United States

This study reports the results of an investigation of the contact stimulation between caregivers and their children in 409 dyads (38 in Japan; 100 in Taiwan; and 271 in the United States). An instrument was used to record quantitative and qualitative data of the dyads in the three countries. A time-sampling procedure of 1 minute of observation and 1 minute of recording, with a minimum of 15 minutes and a maximum of 30 minutes, per dyad was used for data collection. The findings indicate significant differences at the p = 0.0001 level among the three cultural groups on the following variables: proximity, clothing, soothing, playing with the child, reading to the child, holding the child, and behavior toward a sleeping child.

Oral stereotypy induced by amphetamine microinjection into striatum: An anatomical mapping study

The ventrolateral striatum has been shown to specifically contribute to expression of psychostimulant-induced orofacial stereotypies. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were implanted with bilateral cannulae directed at one of eight striatal subareas, and were injected with saline or amphetamine (20 μg/0.5 /μ1/side) in a counterbalanced order. Behaviors were observed and scored using a time-sampling procedure. In the middle ventrolateral striatum, amphetamine injections produced intense stereotypy, primarily consisting of bar biting, non-injurious self-biting and repetitive paw-to-mouth movements, while having no effect on locomotion or rearing. Amphetamine injections 2 mm medial or 1 mm dorsal produced no oral stereotypy, while injections 1 mm rostral or caudal to the effective site produced only low levels of stereotypy. Injections into the surrounding sites, particularly in the ventromedial region, also had stimulatory effects on locomotion and rearing. In a separate experiment, animals were given either unilateral or bilateral injection of amphetamine into the ventrolateral striatum. The unilateral injection produced stereotypy half as intense as that observed with bilateral injections. These results suggest that the ventrolateral striatum is a discrete neuroanatomical region which is primarily responsible for expression of psychostimulant-induced orofacial stereotypies, and which is likely to be the striatal region controlling normal oral motor function. Further investigation of this area may provide valuable insights concerning the etiology and treatment of orofacial dyskinesias associated with basal ganglia dysfunction.

Behavioral and Self-Report Measures of Staff Burnout in Developmental Disabilities

The potential for burnout among workers in developmental disabilities has been a frequent concern. In the present study, self-reported levels of burnout (Maslach Burnout Inventory scores) were correlated with measures of staff activity and commonly cited behavioral effects of burnout. Seventy-nine direct care staff from five facilities serving the developmentally disabled were given the MBI and a brief questionnaire. Data were also collected on absenteeism and tardiness and a time sampling procedure was employed to assess staff activity. Of 102 correlations between the MBI and demographic, self-report, and behavioral measures, only 5 were statisticaly significant at the .05 level. Of 55 correlations among 11 staff activities, 22 were statistically significant. The activity correlations revealed two distinct patterns. The two activities involving positive direct client contact were negatively correlated with the four activities involving negative client contact or the absence of client contact. Staff who e...

Excitatory amino acid receptors mediate the orofacial stereotypy elicited by dopaminergic stimulation of the ventrolateral striatum

The present experiments examined the role of excitatory amino acid receptors in the orofacial stereotypy induced by direct amphetamine microinjection into the ventrolateral striatum. In these experiments, the influence of prior intra-ventrolateral striatum treatment with various excitatory amino acid antagonists on the expression of amphetamine-stimulated oral stereotypy was observed. In all experiments, behavioral observations were conducted in the home cage using a time-sampling procedure. In the first experiment, different groups of rats received bilateral microinfusions of either kynurenic acid, 2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid, 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline or dizocilpine maleate. The excitatory amino acid antagonists were administered immediately prior to bilateral microinfusions of d-amphetamine. Both N-methyl- d-aspartate and non- N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists dose-dependently attenuated or blocked the expression of dopamine-mediated stereotypy. 2-Amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid was the most potent of these compounds, totally suppressing stereotypy at a dose of 0.3 μg (equivalent to 1.5 nmol). In the second experiment, the same compounds were tested for their ability to suppress physostigmine-induced mouth movements. Cholinergic stimulation of the ventrolateral striatum has previously been shown to elicit non-directed mouth movements, quite distinguishable from stimulus-directed, amphetamine-induced biting. Excitatory amino acid antagonists were administered in the same doses prior to bilateral infusion of physostigmine (2.5 μg/0.5 μl). The expression of physostigmine-induced mouth movements was for the most part not affected by excitatory amino acid antagonists, although dizocilpine maleate slightly reduced this oral behavior. In a third experiment, behavior was observed following infusion of the antagonists alone, using the same doses as in the previous experiments. No behavioral alterations were observed with the exception of a small increase in nonspecific mouth movements induced by kynurenic acid and 2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid. These findings indicate that the expression of dopamine-mediated oral stereotypy, induced by amphetamine stimulation of the ventrolateral striatal region, is highly dependent on activation of striatal excitatory amino acid receptors. In contrast, oral behavior induced by cholinergic stimulation of the ventrolateral region is not mediated by glutamate input. These results are discussed in relation to the synaptic organization of neuronal elements within the striatum. Moreover, the relevance to further understanding of orofacial dyskinesias is noted.

The Effects of a Student-Operated Business Curriculum on the On-Task Behavior of Students with Behavioral Disorders

This study examined the effects of a student-operated business curriculum on the on-task behavior of three students with behavioral disorders in a self-contained middle school class. An ABAB design was employed to determine the effects of the intervention. Data were collected using a one-minute time-sampling procedure. Results indicated a functional relationship between the student-operated business curriculum and time on task in mathematics.

Parent-infant interaction during perinatal addiction treatment.

Studies of parent-child interactions during perinatal addiction treatment are needed to offer insights into the nature of child development outcomes for this population. A purposeful sample of 17 women in a drug and alcohol addiction treatment program and their infants was studied over the course of their first year in the program. The purpose of this naturalistic field study was to examine parent-child interactions during addiction treatment. The following research question guided the inquiry: What is the nature of parent-infant interaction during the first year in a perinatal addiction treatment program? This study combined grounded theory methodology with the quantitative methods of descriptive and differential statistics. Open-coding of interviews, field notes, and the treatment records followed grounded theory methodology. A time-sampling procedure was used to examine stability of interactions at the beginning of program participation, again when each infant was 6 months old, and when each infant was 12 months. Results are used to describe parent-child interactions across samples and over time. Chi-square procedures were performed on number of children in each family, length of time in the program, sobriety, and mutual enjoyment of interaction. A significant difference in interaction by length of time in the program (chi 2 = 7.0801, df = 1, p < .00) as well as in interaction by percent sobriety (chi 2 = 4.1538, df = 1, p < .04) was evident. Behaviors of the infants reflected the emotional tone and parenting responses of their mothers. Dyads whose interactions showed a pattern of mutuality were more likely to continue in the treatment program and to maintain sobriety. The ability of a mother to enjoy her infant seemed to be the one factor that made the most difference in child behaviors. Results can be used by clinicians to guide the choice of treatment approaches that support the parent-child relationship during addiction treatment.

Behaviour in the novel environment predicts responsiveness to d-amphetamine in the rat

The behaviour of rats in a novel environment was studied using a rapid time-sampling observation procedure followed by a principal component analysis (PCA) of the data. This approach revealed that novel environment behaviour can be described by two factors or principal components. The first factor comprised rearing, sniffing-up, ambulation and locomotion (photocell counts), and was termed "Escape". The second factor, which had high positive loadings of sniffing-down and locomotion and a high negative loading of immobility, was termed "Exploration". The scores of individual rats on the "Escape" factor predicted the stimulatory effect of acutely administered d-amphetamine (1.5mg/kg) on unconditioned behaviour. "Escape" high responders (HRs) showed more behavioural stimulation than "Escape" low responders (LRs). However, the locomotor stimulatory response of both groups increased after long-term, periodic administration of d-amphetamine and drug discrimination training, such that the level of drug-induced locomotor activity was now equivalent for the two groups. The same rats were tested twice with various doses of d-amphetamine after being trained to discriminate this drug (0.5mg/kg) from saline. "Escape" HRs were less sensitive than "Escape" LRs to the discriminative effects of 0.125-0.25mg/kg d-amphetamine. In contrast to these findings, "Exploration" HRs and LRs were not different on any of the dependent measures described above. These results are discussed in relation to the possibility that "Escape" factor scores are an indication of an animal's responsivity to novelty-induced stress. If this is the case, then animals which are more susceptible to the effects of novelty stress are more sensitive to the locomotor stimulating effects of acute d-amphetamine, but less sensitive to the cueing properties of low doses of this drug.

The effects of the classroom environment on the social and mastery behavior of preschool children with disabilities

One hundred fifty-three children with disabilities (49 with Down syndrome, 57 with motor impairment, and 47 with developmental delays) were observed in a total of 148 preschool classrooms. Social interaction with peers and teachers, strategies employed in attempts to master tasks, and use of time in the classroom were recorded by trained blind observers using a modified time sampling procedure. Analyses indicated significant relations between children's classroom behavior and three selected classroom characteristics—degree of integration, teacher-child ratio, and the extent to which children could choose activities. The findings have programmatic and policy implications for the education of young children with disabilities.

Effects of linear vestibular stimulation on body-rocking behavior in adults with profound mental retardation.

The effects of linear vestibular stimulation on body-rocking behaviors in adults with profound mental retardation were studied. A single-system multiple base-line design across 3 subjects was used. The design included three phases spread over a period of 9 weeks. An interval time sampling procedure was used to collect data. Data from the 3 subjects were graphed and interpreted through visual inspection. Trend lines were computed with the celeration line approach to supplement the visual inspection of the data. The results demonstrated a decrease in body-rocking behaviors during the treatment and follow-up phases for Subject 2 but no obvious change in performance for Subjects 1 and 3. A lengthier treatment period and selection of subjects with similar body-rocking frequencies are suggested for further research.

Ontogenetic differences in the psychopharmacological responses to separate and combined stimulation of D1 and D2 dopamine receptors during the neonatal to weanling age period.

The psychopharmacological responses to separate and combined stimulation of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors were examined in neonatal (postnatal day 3-4, P3-4), infant (P10-11) and weanling (P21-22) rat pups. Thirty minutes prior to testing rat pups received a subcutaneous (SC) injection of saline, 1.0 (P3-4, P10-11) or 0.5 (P21-22) mg/kg of the D2 agonist quinpirole. Fifteen minutes later all animals received an additional SC injection of 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1.0 or 10.0 mg/kg of the D1 agonist SKF-38393. Pups were tested for 5 min via a time-sampling procedure in a humidity controlled incubator for 3- and 10-day-old animals and in a divided glass aquarium for 21-day-old pups. Although administration of either agonist alone induced increases in forward locomotion and/or sniffing behavior at all test ages, the adult-typical grooming response to SKF-38393 and increase in vertical movements in response to quinpirole were not evident until weaning. Similarly, although combined administration of the agonists induced synergistic responding at each test age, only weanlings exhibited an adult-typical synergistic increase in licking. Thus, although the D1 and D2 receptor subtypes appear to be functionally present and coupled in some fashion throughout the neonatal to weanling age period, ontogenetic differences are evident in the behavioral responses elicited by separate and combined stimulation of these receptor subtypes.