Time-sampling Procedure Research Articles

Effect of a Time-Efficient Physical Activity Intervention on Senior School Students’ On-Task Behaviour and Subjective Vitality: the ‘Burn 2 Learn’ Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial

Despite well-established benefits, the majority of young people around the globe are not sufficiently active. In many countries, including Australia, physical activity (i.e. physical education and school sport) is not mandatory in the final two years of high school (i.e. senior school years). The aim of this study was to assess the impact of a time-efficient physical activity intervention on senior school students’ on-task behaviour and subjective vitality. This was a sub-study of the Burn 2 Learn (B2L) cluster randomised controlled trial, which included two cohorts. Participants for this sub-study (N = 221) were from 10 secondary schools (23 classes) located in New South Wales, Australia (Cohort 2). Teachers allocated to the B2L intervention group were provided with training, resources and support to facilitate the delivery of two high-intensity activity breaks per week during lesson time for five weeks. A wait-list control was used as comparison group. On-task behaviour was assessed at baseline and post-test, using a momentary time sampling procedure and expressed as a percentage of lesson time. At post-test, subjective vitality was assessed at the start and end of the lesson using a validated questionnaire. Significant group-by-time effects were observed for students’ on-task behaviour in favour of the B2L group [adjusted mean difference = 19.3% of lesson time (95% CI, 0.8 to 37.8), p = 0.042, d = 0.43]. At post-test, significant group-by-time effects were observed for students’ subjective vitality favouring the B2L group [adjusted mean difference = 0.67 units (95% CI, 0.3 to 1.0), p < 0.001, d = 0.36]. The B2L intervention was successful in improving senior school students’ on-task behaviour and their subjective vitality. These findings highlight the potential academic benefits of re-allocating curriculum time to physical activity during the senior school years.

Gross Motor Skills Predict Classroom Behavior in Lower-Income Children.

Children from lower income families tend to have low levels of on-task behavior in the academic classroom. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations of gross motor skills and classroom behavior in a sample of lower-income children. Participants were a sample of 1,135 school-aged children (mean age = 8.3 ± 1.8 years) recruited from three low-income US schools. A reduced version of the Test for Gross Motor Development 2nd Edition (TGMD-2) was used to assess gross motor skills. Total TGMD-2 scores, locomotor subtest scores, and object control subtest scores were stratified into quintiles for analysis. Students' classroom behavior was recorded 1 year later using a Planned Activity Check (PLACHECK) 5-s momentary time sampling procedure. Classrooms were dichotomized into those that had students at least 80% on-task and those that did not. Multilevel generalized mixed models were employed to examine the relationship between gross motor skills and meeting at least 80% classroom behavior, adjusting for age, sex, and change in BMI, and aerobic fitness. Children in the highest TGMD-2 quintile had 4.17 higher odds of being in an on-task classroom 1 year later (95%CI [2.25–7.76], p < 0.001). This relationship was primarily driven by the relationship between object control quintile scores and classroom behavior, as children within the higher quintile for object control had 3.81 higher odds of being in an on-task classroom 1 year later (95%CI [2.67–5.46], p < 0.001). There was a significant relationship between individual gross motor skills, specifically object control skills, and group level on-task classroom behavior in lower-income children.

Self-determination at a Career and Technical School: Observations of IEP Meetings

The purpose of this study was to conduct observations of Individualized Education Program (IEP) meetings at a Career and Technical Education (CTE) high school to determine who spoke during the IEP meetings, how IEP team members rate their IEP meeting behaviors and perceptions, and if there any differences in how behaviors and perceptions of the IEP meetings are rated. A 10-s momentary time sampling procedure was used to determine which IEP team members spoke the most and least during 10 IEP meetings. A post-IEP meeting survey was used to determine how IEP team members rated their IEP meeting behaviors and perceptions. Descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were computed. IEP team members who spoke the most were the special education coordinator, special education teacher, and student. Students rated their meeting behaviors the highest. Students, parents, and educators had positive perceptions of the IEP meetings. A statistically significant difference (F(3, 86) = 3.43, p = 0.012; Wilks’ lambda = 0.74; partial eta squared = 0.13) was found indicating educators had a lower mean rating on composite meeting behavior. Educators seem to be seeking input from students and parents during IEP meetings, yet there remains a need for increased student leadership during IEP meetings. Educators, parents, and students seem to lack knowledge about the availability of post-high school adult services, resulting in an increased need to provide information about agencies to students, teachers, and parents.

Examining the Influence of Interval Length on the Dependability of Observational Estimates

Systematic direct observation is a tool commonly employed by school psychologists to investigate student behavior. As these data are used for educational decision-making, ensuring the psychometric adequacy of the obtained data is an important consideration. Given that procedural aspects of systematic direct observation have been shown to influence the psychometric properties of obtained data, this study was designed to explore how interval length influences the dependability of academic engagement data when using a momentary time sampling procedure. Twenty seventh-grade students were each observed for two 15-min sessions during math instruction. A series of generalizability studies were conducted to examine how manipulations to interval length influenced reliability-like coefficients. In general, shorter interval lengths (i.e., 10 s, 15 s) were shown to produce higher levels of dependability. For example, an acceptable level of dependability (i.e., ϕ = .70) required twice as many 30-min observations when utilizing 20- or 30-s sampling as were required when utilizing 10- or 15-s sampling. Furthermore, whereas an acceptable level of dependability (i.e., ϕ = .70) could not be obtained using any interval length when conducting a single observation, this criterion was met using either 10- or 15-s sampling across two 30-min observations.

人工地盤上の空間構成とコミュニティ形成に関する研究

Sakaide Artificial Ground in Sakaide, Kagawa prefecture (built 1963-1978) is a known example of the combined applications of Modernism and Metabolism in post-war Japanese Architecture. It was developed as a high-density complex for commercial use and public housing. The ground floor is for retail spaces, theaters, restaurants and parking and the second level artificial ground was built for public housing. At present, the structures are partially deteriorating, outdated, and are used by a community composed of aging residents. The pedestrian traffic and circulation within the area is affected by the lack of elevators, narrow paths, and steep stairs. While Sakaide Artificial Ground was a frontier development during the post-war era, its design is no longer relevant with its present use and is expected to hugely affect the living situation of the residents. For example, on the second-level artificial ground, the privacy of the residents are noticeably different from public housings that are built on natural ground. Residents in Sakaide Artificial Ground use the public area like they own the open spaces privately. This paper aims to clarify the influence of the interaction of residents on the community formation of Sakaide Artificial Ground, focusing on how to use the public area of public housing. The measures devised to obtain data are: (1) surveys to investigate the occupation and utilization of the public areas that are affected by the residents' perception of personal space, (2) the time sampling procedure to record behaviors of residents in relation to time-patterns, (3) behavior mapping to investigate the nature of activity, and (4) the last one, interviews, to investigate the perception of the residents. In conclusion, results of the study show positive actions by residents' autonomy in the use the public area of public housing. For instance, residents voluntarily encouraged the use of the public area, and this activity contributes to the formation of the community of Sakaide Artificial Ground.

Preliminary Evidence on the Efficacy of Mindfulness Combined with Traditional Classroom Management Strategies.

The current case study combined mindfulness-based strategies with a classroom behavior management treatment package, to assist teachers with managing 3rd grade student behaviors. Two teachers (Classroom teacher and Specials teacher) and six students within the same classroom were observed using a 5-min momentary time sampling procedure. A delayed multiple baseline across settings (e.g., Classroom teacher, Specials teacher) design was used to assess student behaviors across baseline (A), classroom behavior management treatment package (CBM) (B), CBM plus mindfulness (C), and CBM plus mindfulness and self-monitoring (D). Behavioral treatment alone increased on-task behaviors for four of six (66%) students compared to baseline; however, five of six (83%) students increased and sustained high rates of on-task behaviors when mindfulness exercises were added to the behavior analytic techniques. These preliminary results support the combination of mindfulness-based strategies with traditional behavior analytic interventions for increasing student on-task behaviors in classroom settings.

Assessing the Accuracy of Classwide Direct Observation Methods: Two Analyses Using Simulated and Naturalistic Data

Two studies investigated the accuracy of eight different interval-based group observation methods that are commonly used to assess the effects of classwide interventions. In Study 1, a Microsoft Visual Basic program was created to simulate a large set of observational data. Binary data were randomly generated at the student level to represent 30–min observations using a 15-s momentary time sampling procedure for 5,000 students distributed evenly across 200 classrooms. Additionally, five classroom types were generated to determine if the base rate of behavior affected the accuracy of each method. Each of the eight observation methods were applied to the simulated data and compared to a criterion to determine their accuracy in estimating rates of classroom behavior. A two-way ANOVA identified a significant main effect for observation method, F(3.40, 663.07) = 15,824.22, p &lt; .001, and a significant interaction between coding method and classroom composition, F(13.60, 663.07) = 40.04, p &lt; .001. In Study 2, to replicate Study 1 using authentic observation data, we compared the accuracy of the same eight methods using a small sample of observations collected in an actual classroom. The results of both studies suggest that six of the eight methods (i.e., two Individual methods and four Planned Activity Check methods) are accurate assessments of group behavior. Furthermore, although classroom composition was associated with statistically significant differences between the accurate methods, we do not consider them large enough to be practically relevant.

Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programming and Classroom Behavior.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of a comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP) on classroom behavior in low-income children. The participants included 1460 children recruited from 3 low-income schools receiving governmental financial assistance. A total of 77 classrooms were observed across grades K through 6. Classrooms were observed one week prior to the implementation of CSPAP and at 6 weeks and 12 weeks after commencement of the program. Members of the research team observed classroom behavior using systematic observation, specifically a 5-second momentary time sampling procedure. A generalized linear mixed effects model was used to determine the change in odds of a classroom achieving at least 80% on-task behavior following the implementation of CSPAP. There were 7.49 (95% CI: 2.83, 19.79) greater odds of a classroom achieving 80% on-task behavior at 6 weeks compared to baseline and a 27.93 (95% CI: 7.93, 98.29) greater odds of a classroom achieving 80% on-task behavior at 12 weeks compared to baseline (p < .001). After the CSPAP was implemented, on-task classroom behavior significantly improved across all grade levels.

Exploring Play of Children with Sensory Impairments in Special Schools at Karachi, Pakistan

Prevalence of disabilities in Pakistan is 2.4 % (3.2 million), with 7 % population suffering from hearing impairments. This study focuses on many aspects of development including physical development, which have never been studied exclusively in developing countries. This pilot study was aimed to explore play pattern of children with hearing &amp; speech impairments in school settings, Karachi, Pakistan. In this article play behaviors of 53 children with sensory impairments aged 8-12 years were explored. Observations were recorded through semi-structured checklist, using norm-based time sampling procedure, recording various types of behavior in a group play context. Three major play categories were observed and recorded under: a) Social Play; proximity and attentiveness b) Cognitive Play; level of child’s involvement and purpose for engaging in the activity c) Non- Play; marked by absence of focus. Frequently observed play behavior was; group play under cognitive play; games with rules and functional play behavior; engagement of child in physical activities for the enjoyment of physical sensation and in non-play behavior active conversation, rough and tumble play, recorded. Study findings reveal the importance of play as an essential component for healthy child development. Dire need of capacity building of school staff and of caregivers regarding child development and importance of play was felt at larger scale.

Effects of transient global ischaemia on freezing behaviour and activity in a context-dependent fear conditioning task – Implications for memory investigations

Transient global ischaemia induces cell death in the CA1 layer of the hippocampus. To evaluate the functional consequences, we performed context-dependent fear conditioning. Ischaemia was induced by 2-vessel-occlusion (2VO) in gerbils. On day 6 post ischaemia or sham procedures (in control group) gerbils were placed in a test chamber and after 3min adaption time exposed to foot-shocks (training session). On the next day the animals were placed in the same test chamber without foot-shocks (test session). As a parameter for memory performance we used the standard method of measuring the total freezing time via a cumulative time-sampling procedure during the test session. We found a significant longer total freezing time in control animals than in ischaemic animals. In addition, however, we applied a more detailed analysis of (i) quantifying the number of freezing bouts, (ii) the average duration of single freezing bouts, (iii) the activity pattern during the training and test situation and (iv) we differentially evaluated all the single time segments of the experiment. These analyses revealed that although maintenance of freezing (duration of freezing bout) was significantly lower in ischaemic animals compared to controls, the initiation of freezing (number of freezing bouts) was not significantly different between the two groups during the test session. The activity scores of ischaemic and non-ischaemic gerbils were similar during the adaption time of the training session. The foot-shock, however, induced a significantly different pattern of behaviour in the ischaemic animals, which was selectively reproduced during the test session. In conclusion, ischaemic gerbils reacted to a fearsome thread with a behavioural pattern different from unlesioned animals and they revealed this specific foot-shock induced behaviour again during the test session. This indicated that CA1 hippocampal death did not interrupt memory performance but changed expression of fear. Therefore, measuring duration of freezing and the activity score seems to be not applicable for quantitative comparisons of memory deficits after 2VO in gerbils in a context-dependent fear conditioning task. Our results indicate, however, that initiation of freezing (number of freezing bouts) may be a more suitable parameter comparing gerbils with and without CA1 damage.

The Effects of Choice Making on Toy Engagement in Nonambulatory and Partially Ambulatory Preschool Students

This study evaluated the effects of an experimenter-delivered choice-making procedure. Three nonambulatory and partially ambulatory preschoolers were given access to six teacher-nominated preferred toys in two conditions: child choice and interventionist choice. Using an alternating treatment design and a 10-second momentary time-sampling procedure, results showed that children were comparably engaged with the toys in both conditions. Results are discussed in terms of implementing choice procedures with very young children with severe disabilities. Suggestions for further study of the effects of choice using comprehensive preference assessment strategies and considerations of individual participant characteristics are discussed.

Continuity in the midst of change: behaviors of residents relocated from a nursing home environment to small households.

A time-sampling procedure was used to observe behaviors of 22 long-term-care residents with dementia (Mini-Mental State Exam median, 11.94; range 0-23) in public areas before and after relocation from a traditional nursing home environment to 2 small household units. Two trained observers noted the occurrence of 19 social behaviors (14 verbal, 5 nonverbal) in which the resident intentionally interacted with another person. Another 19 nonsocial behaviors (16 active, 3 passive) were also coded. Analysis by t tests of 6 groupings of behaviors showed no significant differences before and after relocation, with the exception of nonverbal social interactions. Overall, residents showed consistency in both social and nonsocial behaviors. Results are interpreted in light of personal, social, and environmental continuity despite the many changes associated with the relocation.

Evaluating the Impact of Intergenerational Activities on Elders' Engagement and Expressiveness Levels in Two Settings

This study evaluated the impact of intergenerational activities on elders' engagement and expressiveness levels in two settings. Study 1 was conducted with 22 well elders at a senior center and approximately 15 children from a nearby grade school. Data were collected using a momentary time sampling procedure, and inter-observer reliability averaged 88% (ranging from 78% to 97%). Elders were significantly more engaged (t(85) = 4.60, p > .001) and expressive (t(85) = 5.55, p > .001) in the treatment condition than the control condition. Study 2 was conducted with 25 older adults diagnosed with dementia, living in a special care unit. Twenty-eight second-graders were in the experimental group and 32 second-graders were in the comparison group. A momentary time sampling procedure was used to observe engagement, expressiveness, and inappropriate behavior levels. Inter-observer agreement averaged 94% (ranged from 85% to 100%). Elders were significantly more engaged in the structured activities with children than the structured activities without children, and significantly more engaged in structured activities without children than the no-activity condition, F(l) = 60.1; p > .01. Elders were also significantly more expressive in structured activities with children than the structured activities without children, and significantly more expressive in the structured activities without children than the no-activity condition, F(1) =26.5; p = 01. Further, there was no significant increase in inappropriate behaviors between any condition, F(1) =.322; p = .57. The analysis of variance regarding children's attitudes towards the elderly showed no significant differences whether they did or did not participate in the intergen-erational activities (F3.5, p < .05), with both groups maintaining positive attitudes of elders. These results reflect the importance of offering intergenerational activities to well and institutionalized elders as well as to children.

Improving Social Relationships in Child Care through a Researcher-Program Partnership

We describe the process of relationship-based intervention and associated changes in children and teachers' relationships and behaviors within center-based child care and examine the circumstances under which changes were most likely to occur. The relationship-based intervention had three components: research partners in each participating classroom, focus groups, and feedback sessions. Twenty-eight teachers and seventy children from 10 programs participated in the research. Approximately half of the children and one-third of the teachers were Latino, and almost half of the teachers and one-third of the children African-American. We used five distinct procedures: (1) participant observation; (2) naturalistic observations using a time sampling procedure; (3) global ratings; (4) clinical interviews and (5) case studies. There were significant main effects for change over time in children's attachment security, complexity of play with peers, and their experiences of teacher responsive involvement. Teachers with BA degrees were more engaged in the intervention than teachers with less formal education. When we held BA degrees constant, children who had teachers engaged in the intervention experienced the greatest changes in classroom climate, teacher responsivity, and in their relationships with the teacher.

An alternative approach to temporal laser-wing effects in saturated laser-induced fluorescence

Temporal laser-wing effects are associated with the unavoidable time characteristics of laser pulses. To remove their contribution in saturated laser-induced fluorescence, time sampling is commonly adopted. In the present work, an alternative approach is formulated. It is based on power measurements obtained from the whole fluorescence response. Numerical simulations with a four-level dynamical model are described to test the method against the traditional time-sampling procedure. A greater amount of measured signal and independence from the fast electronic sampler are the main advantages of the proposed method.

Evidence of cross-tolerance between behavioural effects of nicotine and cocaine in mice.

Studies have reported that chronic exposure to nicotine does not alter the effects of cocaine on locomotor activity, and vice versa. However, the apparent lack of effect of one drug on the behavioural response to the other may be due to an exclusive focus on locomotor activity as the target behaviour. To test whether repeated pretreatment with nicotine causes tolerance or sensitization to cocaine's effects on diverse behaviours: locomotion, rearing, grooming, and immobility. Similarly, the effects of repeated cocaine treatment on the acute response to nicotine were also tested. Mice were pretreated with 14 injections of nicotine (0.3 mg/kg), cocaine (5 mg/kg) or saline, the injections being given once daily, except for three breaks of two days each. Two days after the final pretreatment injection, mice were given a challenge injection of saline, cocaine (3 or 5 mg/kg) or nicotine (0.3 or 1 mg/kg), and observed in a large test cage for 40 min using a time-sampling procedure. Repeated administration of either drug produced some tolerance to subsequent challenge with the same dose of the drug. Prior nicotine exposure significantly attenuated cocaine-induced decreases in grooming and increases in rearing, but did not significantly affect other behaviours. In contrast, prior cocaine exposure failed to alter nicotine's effects on any behaviour. Cross-tolerance between nicotine and cocaine (but not vice-versa) can be demonstrated if several behaviours are observed; measures of locomotor activity are less sensitive to the effect. The asymmetrical pattern of cross-tolerance may be due to differential inhibition of dopamine uptake by the two drugs.

Quality of child care in the preschool years: A comparison of the influence of home care and day care characteristics on child outcome

One hundred and six families of 2-year-old children, having experienced either family day care or centre-based day care, took part in this study. Parents’ and day care providers’ representations and values concerning their ideal definition of child care were assessed, and direct observations of child care settings conducted, using a time-sampling procedure. The instruments concerning both representations and observations have a seven dimension structure: caregiver availability, stimulation, firmness, warmth, autonomy, achievement, and organisation. When children were 3 years of age, the families were contacted again (16% drop out) for an evaluation of various outcomes: parental reports of child behaviour problems (CBCL) and egoresiliency (CCQ), assessments of child developmental quotient (McCarthy), and of attachment representations (ASCT). The day care variables (care providers’ representations and observed variables of the setting), unexpectedly explained the variance of the dependent variables (especially behaviour problems) more than the corresponding parental variables. These results contrast with other studies in the field. Apparently, they can be attributed to the relatively wide span of dimensions, as well as to the variety of child care settings considered. Non-parental and parental care had some selective effects on the different dependent variables. The effects of representations were globally stronger than those of observed characteristics. These data point to the importance of child care quality, emphasise the idea that quality is multidimensional, and stress the significance of caregivers’ representations and values.

Engagement with Toys in Two-Year-Old Children with Autism: Teacher Selection versus Child Choice

This article compared two conditions (teacher selection of toys and child choice of toys) on the amount of time children were engaged appropriately with toys. An alternating treatment design was used, and three 2-year-old boys with autism participated. In the teacher-selected condition, the teacher gave the child a toy; and in the child-choice condition, the teacher gave the child a choice between two toys. The toys were selected from a pool of toys based on each child's frequency of contact with the toys from measures taken before the study started. A 5-second momentary time sampling procedure was used during daily 10-min sessions to measure the child's engagement with toys, nonengagement, and problematic behaviors. The teacher's behaviors (physical prompt, modeling, talking, silent observation, and other) also were measured. The data suggest the child-choice condition resulted in more engaged time for each participant and fewer problematic behaviors for two of the three boys. The results are discussed in terms of clinical applications and future research.

Is There Savings for Pavlovian Fear Conditioning after Neurotoxic Basolateral Amygdala Lesions in Rats?

Considerable evidence indicates an important role for amygdaloid nuclei in both the acquisition and expression of Pavlovian fear conditioning. Recent reports from my laboratory have focused on the impact of neurotoxic lesions of the basolateral complex of the amygdala (BLA) on conditional freezing behavior in rats. In these studies, I have observed severe effects of posttraining BLA lesions on the expression of conditional freezing even after extensive presurgical overtraining (25–75 trials). Moreover, I have found no evidence for sparing of fear memory (i.e., savings) in these rats when I assess their rate of reacquisition relative to BLA rats receiving minimal training (1 trial). In these experiments, freezing behavior was assessed using a conventional time-sampling procedure and expressed as a response probability. Although this measure is well established in the literature, it is conceivable that it is not sensitive to spared memory in rats with BLA lesions. To address this issue, I present a more detailed analysis of freezing behavior that quantifies latency to freeze, the number of freezing bouts, the duration of freezing bouts, and the probability distribution of bout lengths. I also include control data from untrained (no-shock) rats. Consistent with my earlier reports, I find no evidence of savings of fear memory in rats with neurotoxic BLA lesions using several measures of freezing behavior. These results reiterate the conclusion that fear memory, as it is expressed in freezing behavior, requires neurons in the BLA.

Preservice Music Teachers' Conceptions of Teaching Effectiveness, Microteaching Experiences, and Teaching Performance

Fifteen undergraduate music education majors who were enrolled in an introductory music education course constructed concept maps on the topic of “teacher effectiveness” prior to and following two microteachings. The Survey of Teaching Effectiveness (STE) and a time sampling procedure based on criteria from teacher-intensity (TI) research measured teaching performance. Conceptions of teaching effectiveness were examined from two perspectives: cognitive structure, measured by map scores, and conceptual understanding, based on qualitative data from maps, self-evaluations, and interviews. Quantitative results indicate that participants' cognitive structure did not change, nor did it correlate with their teaching performance. Qualitative results provide insight into how preservice teachers acquire conceptions of teaching effectiveness and suggest that microteachings in conjunction with concept mapping may help shape preservice music education teachers' understanding of what it means to teach.