Submergence Time Research Articles

Muddy waters: the influence of high suspended-sediment concentration on the diving behaviour of a bimodally respiring freshwater turtle from north-eastern Australia

Increased suspended-sediment concentrations (SS) in rivers can affect aquatic respiration in riverine fauna by impairing respiratory function. Bimodally respiring freshwater turtles are likely to be sensitive to changes in SS because increased concentrations may affect their ability to aquatically respire. However, the impact of SS on the diving behaviour of bimodally respiring freshwater turtles has not been formally investigated. To test this, we examined the influence of dissolved oxygen (DO) saturation (25%, 100%) and temperature (17°C, 25°C) on the diving behaviour of Elseya irwini under clear (0mgL–1) and turbid (79mgL–1) conditions. We hypothesised that low temperature and high DO % saturation would increase dive duration and that high SS would negate the effect of DO, decreasing dive duration under highly oxygenated conditions. Our data demonstrated that increased SS significantly reduced mean dive duration by 73% (97.4±10.1min in 0mgL–1 trials v. 26.4±3.2min in 79mgL–1 trials) under conditions of low temperature (17°C) and high DO % saturation (100%) only. Increased SS directly affects the utilisation of DO by this species, so as to extend submergence times (aquatic respiration) under optimal conditions, raising concerns about the effect of SS on the persistence of populations of physiologically specialised freshwater turtles.

Traits associated with the escape strategy are responsible for flash flooding tolerance of rice during the emergence and seedling stages

To identify the adaptive traits responsible for flooding tolerance during the initial growth stages of rice, dry seeds of 53 contrasting genotypes were sown in soil and watered normally (control) or submerged with 10 cm of water for 17 days. Subsequently, the plants were kept under normal rice cultivation conditions for a further 7 days. Cluster analysis showed that 53 genotypes were divided into three groups based on emergence date, percentage of plants reaching the water’s surface, maximum coleoptile length, shoot elongation rate during submergence and increases in shoot dry weight after de-submergence. Twelve genotypes were placed in cluster 1 and characterized by fast emergence, rapid coleoptile elongation, and vigorous shoot growth under control and submergence conditions. The genotypes in cluster 1 attained also a higher increase in shoot dry weight at different time of submergence and de-submergence than the genotypes in clusters 2 and 3. A significant correlation was observed between the increase in shoot dry weight and traits related with fast and vigorous shoot elongation and coleoptile. In conclusion, flooding tolerance during initial growth stages were mainly due to major submergence avoidance or escape mechanisms, and crop establishment of direct-seeded rice in flood-prone areas is accomplished by harnessing reserves for fast shoot elongation.

Within-site variation of growth rates and terminal sizes in Mytilus californianus along wave exposure and tidal gradients.

Mytilus californianus is a foundation species of rocky shores of western North America. Its dominance depends on rapid growth to large sizes, which confers an advantage in size-dependent species interactions. Initial rates of growth and final (terminal) sizes of the mussels depend on environmental factors. Prior comparisons of growth made over large spatial scales (tens of meters to hundreds of kilometers) indicate that temperature, submergence time, and wave exposure affect growth. However, there are few studies quantifying variation in temperature, wave force, and mussel growth parameters at small scales within local populations-that is, meter-level increments. Such measures are necessary to better understand the consequences of the complex spatial mosaic of physical factors in the intertidal zone. We measured variation in temperature, wave force, size-specific shell growth, and terminal size at 3-4-m intervals along horizontal contours within two mussel beds separated by 15 ds of latitude. Both mussel beds showed the same general trends: growth rates attenuated along gradual clines from low and wave-exposed to high shore and sheltered. For example, young adults from low and wave-exposed microhabitats grew 9- and 6-fold higher than those from high-shore-wave-sheltered points. While higher flow may promote growth by enhancing feeding, it also appears to exert a positive effect by moderating energetically costly temperature stress. Consistent with the growth rate findings, cumulative degree-hours explained 83% and 69% of the variation of terminal sizes in regressions for the two locations.

Eletrochemical changes in Gleysol of the Amazon estuary

Electrochemical reactions are intensified by soil flooding, which changes the dynamics of nutrients and negatively affects plant growth. In this work, we aimed to evaluate the changes in the redox potential (Eh), pH and nutrient availability in a Haplic Gleysol soil from a floodplain of the Guama River, Belem, Para State. During the period of floods (61 days), samples soils were collected on alternate days and analyzed in dry and wet conditions. Flooding resulted in higher pH values and decreased Eh, which stabilized after 32 days of flooding and did not affect the values of total nitrogen. An increase in the concentrations of phosphorus, sulfur, iron, manganese, copper and zinc were observed, and they were subsequently reduced with time of submergence. The reduction of sulfur occurred at low Eh and pH values near neutrality. The results show that nitrogen and sulfur do not limit agricultural production in the lowland soils of the Guama River.

Diving in a warming world: the thermal sensitivity and plasticity of diving performance in juvenile estuarine crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus).

Air-breathing, diving ectotherms are a crucial component of the biodiversity and functioning of aquatic ecosystems, but these organisms may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change on submergence times. Ectothermic dive capacity is thermally sensitive, with dive durations significantly reduced by acute increases in water temperature; it is unclear whether diving performance can acclimate/acclimatize in response to long-term exposure to elevated water temperatures. We assessed the thermal sensitivity and plasticity of 'fright-dive' capacity in juvenile estuarine crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus; n = 11). Crocodiles were exposed to one of three long-term thermal treatments, designed to emulate water temperatures under differing climate change scenarios (i.e. current summer, 28°C; 'moderate' climate warming, 31.5°C; 'high' climate warming, 35°C). Dive trials were conducted in a temperature-controlled tank across a range of water temperatures. Dive durations were independent of thermal acclimation treatment, indicating a lack of thermal acclimation response. Acute increases in water temperature resulted in significantly shorter dive durations, with mean submergence times effectively halving with every 3.5°C increase in water temperature (Q 10 0.17, P < 0.001). Maximal dive performances, however, were found to be thermally insensitive across the temperature range of 28-35°C. These results suggest that C. porosus have a limited or non-existent capacity to thermally acclimate sustained 'fright-dive' performance. If the findings here are applicable to other air-breathing, diving ectotherms, the functional capacity of these organisms will probably be compromised under climate warming.

The efficiency of selection grids in perch pontoon traps

In commercial fishing, minimizing the bycatch of undersized fish or non-target species is highly beneficial, to avoid unnecessary fish mortality and to save time for the fishers. Two pontoon traps developed for perch fishing were equipped with size selection grids, and the efficiency with which under-sized fish could escape was tested. Average size of perch, roach, and whitefish was larger in traps with selection grids compared to in control traps without grids. Selection efficiencies using these comparisons were 82–86% for perch, 33% for whitefish and 100% for roach. The selection grids were filmed with an underwater video camera over the daily cycle, to estimate timing, and total number of exits from the traps. Selection efficiencies, calculated by extrapolating number of escapes observed to the total time of trap submergence, were 94–100% for perch and 100% for roach. The discrepancy in the selection efficiency estimates for perch probably depends on an uncertainty in the extrapolation, because of the variation in escape rate across time periods. Perch and roach differed in time of day for escapes. For perch most escapees was seen in the evening, and for roach most fish escaped at night, probably reflecting the general activity cycles of the two species. Over a fishing season, several thousands of fish would be able to escape from each trap, and an increase in the use of size selection grids could potentially be an efficient tool for fish population management.

The substantial influences of non-resource conditions on recovery of plants: A case study of clipped Spartina alterniflora asphyxiated by submergence

Because non-resource factors, which can not be utilized by organisms but can influence biological growth, are important growing conditions for species, the study of the effect of these factors on the recovery of disturbed plants can contribute to the management of vegetation. Spartina alterniflora (smooth cordgrass), having invaded many marshes, was clipped to test the effects of submergence time and soil salinity on the recovery, as well as their underlying mechanisms. The results showed that salinity did not significantly affect the recovery of clipped invader, while longer-time submergence led to poorer recovery. Pentose phosphate pathway plays primary role in carbon metabolism of S. alterniflora roots. Along with the increase of submergence time, however, the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase in the roots of clipped S. alterniflora decreased; and the activities of lactate dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase firstly increased and then decreased. Ultimately, the activities of the three dehydrogenases became zero and thus asphyxiated the roots. Consequently, the clipped invader died after submergence of 12 days. Our case study demonstrates the recovery of invasive plants after disturbance depends on some non-resource conditions which can significantly influence the carbon metabolism of remaining parts. Thus, it can be predicted that identifying such non-resource conditions can help to develop an environment-specific management regime. The physical methods for removing aboveground biomass can be used to control invasive Spartina spp. in long-time submergence zones, whereas such methods need to be optimised for other zones.

Influencing Factors Analysis on Sunken Greenbelt Design of Urban Road

In order to provide scientific basis for the design parameters’ selection of sunken greenbelt of urban road, computational formulae of critical sunken depth and sunken greenbelt plant’s submergence time were derived based on the storage-infiltration analysis of sunken greenbelt. And then the influence of various factors on the sunken greenbelt design of urban road were computed and analyzed. Results show that: soil infiltration coefficient, design recurrence interval of storm and sunken greenbelt plant’s submergence time are the key influencing factors on the sunken greenbelt design. Under the same condition, critical sunken depth decreases linearly with the increase of soil infiltration coefficient, and increases nonlinearly with the increase of design recurrence interval of storm. Sunken greenbelt plant’s submergence time is proportional to sunken depth of sunken greenbelt, and it is inversely proportional to soil infiltration coefficient. When the value of soil infiltration coefficient is greater than 10-6m/s and the sunken depth range from 0 to 0.25 meters, submergence time of sunken greenbelt plants is all within 70h, and the sunken greenbelt can most infiltrate the rainfall storage in 1d. Considering all the influencing factors, soil infiltration coefficient of sunken greenbelt of urban road should be greater than10-6m/s and the appropriate sunken depth should be range from 0 to 0.25 meters.

Gas film retention and underwater photosynthesis during field submergence of four contrasting rice genotypes.

Floods can completely submerge some rice (Oryza sativa L.) fields. Leaves of rice have gas films that aid O2 and CO2 exchange under water. The present study explored the relationship between gas film persistence and underwater net photosynthesis (PN) as influenced by genotype and submergence duration. Four contrasting genotypes (FR13A, IR42, Swarna, and Swarna-Sub1) were submerged for 13 days in the field and leaf gas films, chlorophyll, and the capacity for underwater PN at near ambient and high CO2 were assessed with time of submergence. At high CO2 during the PN assay, all genotypes initially showed high rates of underwater PN, and this rate was not affected by time of submergence in FR13A. This superior photosynthetic performance of FR13A was not evident in Swarna-Sub1 (carrying the SUB1 QTL) and the declines in underwater PN in both Swarna-Sub1 and Swarna were equal to that in IR42. At near ambient CO2 concentration, underwater PN declined in all four genotypes and this corresponded with loss of leaf gas films with time of submergence. FR13A retained leaf gas films moderately longer than the other genotypes, but gas film retention was not linked to SUB1. Diverse rice germplasm should be screened for gas film persistence during submergence, as this trait could potentially increase carbohydrate status and internal aeration owing to increased underwater PN, which contributes to submergence tolerance in rice.

Sensitivity to hypercapnia and elimination of CO2 following diving in Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus)

The diving ability of marine mammals is a function of how they use and store oxygen and the physiological control of ventilation, which is in turn dependent on the accumulation of CO2. To assess the influence of CO2 on physiological control of dive behaviour, we tested how increasing levels of inspired CO2 (hypercarbia) and decreasing inspired O2 (hypoxia) affected the diving metabolic rate, submergence times, and dive recovery times (time to replenish O2 stores and eliminate CO2) of freely diving Steller sea lions. We also measured changes in breathing frequency of diving and non-diving individuals. Our findings show that hypercarbia increased breathing frequency (as low as 2% CO2), but did not affect metabolic rate, or the duration of dives or surface intervals (up to 3% CO2). Changes in breathing rates indicated respiratory drive was altered by hypercarbia at rest, but blood CO2 levels remained below the threshold that would alter normal dive behaviour. It took the sea lions longer to remove accumulated CO2 than it did for them to replenish their O2 stores following dives (whether breathing ambient air, hypercarbia, or hypoxia). This difference between O2 and CO2 recovery times grew with increasing dive durations, increasing hypercarbia, and was greater for bout dives, suggesting there could be a build-up of CO2 load with repeated dives. Although we saw no evidence of CO2 limiting dive behaviour, the longer time required to remove CO2 may eventually exhibit control over the overall time they can spend in apnoea and overall foraging duration.

Relating diving behavior and antioxidant status: Insights from oxidative stress biomarkers in the blood of two distinct divers, Mirounga leonina and Arctocephalus australis

Pinnipeds rely upon diving to perform essential activities, including foraging. As pulmonated animals, oxygen privation experienced during submergence represents a considerable challenge both physiologically and biochemically. Routine exposure to hypoxia and the rapid transitions between ischemia/reperfusion of tissues leads to extremely high reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which must be opposed by antioxidant defenses to avoid oxidative stress. The diving behaviors and capabilities of pinnipeds are very diverse, resulting in distinct metabolic responses among species. To assess whether these characteristics reflect the antioxidant status of two marine diving mammals with distinct diving capacities, oxidative stress biomarkers were measured in the blood of Arctocephalus australis (n=11) and Mirounga leonina (n=12). All of the biomarkers analyzed in M. leonina were significantly higher than those of A. australis, suggesting that higher antioxidant content is needed to counteract the high ROS production associated with the long submergence times (24.3±5.6min) of this species, which are nearly ten times greater than those of A. australis (2.8±0.5min). Thus, the constitutive antioxidant defenses of both species are of distinct magnitudes due to their inherent diving capacity.

Differences in responses to flooding by germinating seeds of two contrasting rice cultivars and two species of economically important grass weeds.

Crop productivity is largely affected by abiotic factors such as flooding and by biotic factors such as weeds. Although flooding after direct seeding of rice helps suppress weeds, it also can adversely affects germination and growth of rice, resulting in poor crop establishment. Barnyard grasses (Echinochloa spp.) are among the most widespread weeds affecting rice, especially under direct seeding. The present work aimed to establish effective management options to control these weeds. We assessed the effects of variable depths and time of submergence on germination, seedling growth and carbohydrate metabolism of (i) two cultivars of rice known to differ in their tolerance to flooding during germination and (ii) two barnyard grasses (Echinochloa colona and E. crus-galli) that commonly infest rice fields. Flooding barnyard grasses with 100-mm-deep water immediately after seeding was effective in suppressing germination and growth. Echinochloa colona showed greater reductions in emergence, shoot and root growth than E. crus-galli. Delaying flooding for 2 or 4 days was less injurious to both species. Echinochloa colona was also more susceptible to flooding than the flood-sensitive rice cultivar 'IR42'. The activity of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC) in rice seedlings was increased by flooding after sowing but with greater increases in 'Khao Hlan On' compared with 'IR42'. The activity of ADH and PDC was enhanced to a similar extent in both barnyard grasses. Under aerobic conditions, the activity of ADH and PDC in the two barnyard grasses was downregulated, which might contribute to their inherently faster growth compared with rice. Aldehyde dehydrogenase activity was significantly enhanced in flood-tolerant 'Khao Hlan On' and E. crus-galli, but did not increase in flood-sensitive E. colona and 'IR42', implying a greater ability of the flood-tolerant types to detoxify acetaldehyde generated during anaerobic fermentation. Confirmation of this hypothesis is now being sought.

Photosynthetic responses to submergence in mangrove seedlings

Flooding and salinity fluctuations are common in mangrove systems. Sometimes these events are long-lasting, persisting several months. With an increased frequency of heavy rainfalls and terrestrial run-off, subsequent floods have been associated with massive mangrove mortality and failure to regenerate in the region. Owing to climate change, these events are expected to be more common in the future. We investigated how three weeks of submergence in water of different salinities affected the photosynthetic rates in seedlings of three common mangroves: Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lamk.; Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.; and Heritiera littoralis Dryand. We found that photosynthesis and survival rates declined with increasing salinity and submergence time for all species. Prolonged submergence caused a significant decline in photosynthetic rates (as electron transport rate – ETR) for B. gymnorrhiza (P = 0.021) and H. littoralis (P = 0.002), whereas significant effects of both salinity (P = 0.003) and submergence (P = 0.023) were observed between species. Maximum diurnal values of ETR declined in the order of A. marina &gt; B. gymnorrhiza &gt; H. littoralis. After submergence, survived seedlings were tended normally, watered twice a day with freshwater. Three seedlings of B. gymnorrhiza from freshwater and 33% seawater treatments and of A. marina from freshwater treatment displayed signs of recovery for the first 3–5 days, but after that they died. We conclude that submergence time and water salinity will affect the performance of mangrove areas, such that areas experiencing prolonged submergence with flooding dominated by saline water might be most severely impacted.

水位节律差异对三峡水库消落区不同物候类型一年生植物构成的影响

三峡水库蓄水后改变了原有长江自然的水位波动节律,并在三峡库区内形成了两种类型的消落区:蓄水前未经历过水淹的完全水库消落区,其水位节律夏低冬高;以及蓄水前属于自然消落区目前受蓄水和洪汛双重影响的消落区,其水位在冬季和夏季都存在高水位.这与自然消落区冬低夏高的水位节律均存在差别.1年生植物根据萌发结实特性可分为春萌秋实、冬萌夏实型植物和广适性植物3类.在不同消落区选取5个样地划分样带设置固定样方,涨水前和退水后调查发现:各消落区均存在3种1年生植物,但3种类型物种的比例和和优势度存在显著差异.只受夏季洪汛影响的自然消落区共发现1年生植物73种,冬萌夏实型植物以45种占优;而水位节律与之相反的完全水库消落区,1年生植物物种数为85种,其中春萌秋实型植物以45种以及较大的优势度成为该区域的优势1年生物种;双重影响消落区,1年生植物物种总数未明显下降,但是在蓄水和洪汛的双重影响下其种群大小相对较低.水位节律的巨大变化会引起1年生植物优势类型的显著改变,适合生长的1年生植物主要是因为其生长周期与淹没期不完全重叠而成为优势物种类型.;After the Three Gorges Dam impoundment, the original water-level fluctuation rhythm of Yangtze River change dramatically. As a result, two new kinds of drawdown zones appear in Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR): the preupland drawdown zone (PU-DZ) which never submerged before impoundment and the preriparian drawdown zone (PR-DZ) which is the former riparian zone of Yangtze River. The water-level fluctuation rhythm of PU-DZ is high in winter because of impoundment, and low in the summer because of flood discharged. Meanwhile, the PR-DZ is affected by both the impoundment in winter and the flood in summer, so the water-level can raise high in winter and summer. Apparently,they both have differences with the water-level fluctuation rhythm of natural riparian zone (NRZ), which is only high in summer for the flood. Annuals can be divided into three types according to their germination and fructified characteristics: annuals germinating in winter fruitifying in summer(AGWFS), annuals germinating in spring fruitifying in autunm (AGSFA) and the common annuals. In this study we chose five sample sites in each kind of habitat and survey them before the freshet and after the impoundment subsiding by fixed quadrats in different transects. All these three types annuals can be discovered in each drawdown zone, however, the proportion of the number of different type's species and their population size are significantly different. The major reason is discrepancy of occurred submergence time in different zones. There are 73 kinds of annuals found in NRZ. The number of AGWFS is 45, its proportion of species number are 52.26-67.46 as the elevations decrease, which is obviously dominant compared with the other two types, because they can avoid the disturbance of summer flood. The total number of annual in PU-DZ is 85, wherein the number of type of AGSFA is 45. The proportions of this type in the total species number are 59.42-82.44 as the elevations decrease. They are dominance in PU-DZ, for the water-level is high in winter from November to the next year's January has little effect on them. However, AGWFS can hardly germinate in this stressful environment. AGWFS are more easily seen in high elevation because this area can end of the impoundment. In PR-DZ, through the total number of annuals is 62, which is not significantly lower than the other two regions. Summer flood and the winter impoundment disturb so frequently that any type of annual cannot get dominance in this environment, the proportions of AGWFS in each elevation are 30-52.57. Meanwhile the proportions of AGSFA in each elevation are 13.33-48.32. Neither of them can get dominant in this region. Moreover, class ephemeral annuals may survive as the dominant type as the stress increasing. The ecological dominance is almost the same as the proportion of species number. This study show if the water-level fluctuation rhythm changed, the composition of annual will change as the response rapidly in the drawdown zone. The original riparian annual plants don't have any advantage in the competitions for survival and spaces in drawdown zone. The adaptive annuals mainly because of that their phenology do not compound with the submergence occurred time then survive as dominant species.

Stabilitas warna basis gigitiruan resin termoplastik nilon yang direndam dalam larutan pembersih gigitiruan peroksida alkalin Color stability of thermoplastic nylon denture base material immerse in alkaline peroxide denture cleanser

This study aimed to determine the effect of alkaline peroxide denture cleanser on the color stability of thermoplasticnylon denture base. This experimental laboratory research with pretest posttest with control group design used 24specimens of thermoplastic nylon (valplast) sized 20x20x2 mm as samples. Twelve specimens immersed in alkalineperoxide denture cleanser solution and the other twelve specimens immersed in aquadest as control. Time intervalsubmergence once for 1 hour, 8 hours and 12 hours each consisting of 4 specimens in alkaline peroxide solution and 4specimens in control solution. They were immersed in 8-hours time interval submergence times 7 by changing thesolution of alkaline peroxide every 8 hours, using 4 speciments for each solutions. Using ANOVA and independent ttest,it showed no significant color changes on thermoplastic nylon resin after immersed in alkaline peroxide solution based on the time interval. However, there was significant color difference on the thermoplastic nylon resin immersed in alkaline peroxide and control solution at second to seventh interval of 8 hours immersed time with increase of time immersing. It was concluded that thermoplastic nylon resin have good stability although immerse in alkaline peroxide denture cleanser

Growth responses and non-structural carbohydrates in three wetland macrophyte species following submergence and de-submergence

We investigated the responses of growth and non-structural carbohydrates to submergence and de-submergence in three wetland macrophyte species. Survival rate, recovery ability, and soluble sugar and starch contents of flood-tolerant Polygonum hydropiper and of flood-sensitive Phalaris arundinacea and Carex argyi from Dongting Lake wetlands were investigated after 20, 40, and 60 days of complete submergence without light and 10 days after de-submergence. Plant dry weight and soluble sugar and starch contents decreased in all species during the submergence period. The decreases were slowest in P. hydropiper, intermediate in C. argyi, and most rapid in P. arundinacea. After 60 days of submergence, survival rates were 100, 50, and 0 % in P. hydropiper, C. argyi, and P. arundinacea, respectively. After recovery, plant dry weight increased in P. hydropiper and in C. argyi, but decreased in P. arundinacea. Compared to pre-submergence, soluble sugar contents generally increased and then remained relatively constant after recovery in all species, while starch content increased in P. hydropiper and decreased in P. arundinacea with increasing submergence time. For C. argyi, starch content decreased after recovery from the 20-day submergence, but increased after recovery from the 40- and 60-day submergences. These data illustrate mechanisms behind the flood tolerance of P. hydropiper and the sensitivity to flooding in P. arundinacea and C. argyi. These mechanisms include lower consumption and quicker accumulation of non-structural carbohydrates in flood-tolerant plants.

Plant communities in relation to `flooding and soil characteristics in the water level fluctuation zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir, China

With the filling of the Three Gorges Reservoir, original vegetation in the water level fluctuation zone (WLFZ) between the elevations of 145 and 175 m disappeared due to the reversal of submergence time (winter flooding) and prolonged inundation duration (nearly half a year). To better understand the relationships between the environmental factors and recovered plant communities for reconstructing floristically diverse riparian zone, we conducted a field survey in 11 sites in the WLFZ in June 2010, and vegetation composition, flooding characteristics, heavy metals, and soil major nutrients were determined. Consequently, the canonical correspondence analysis was used to investigate the relationships between plant species composition and flooding characteristics, heavy metal contamination, and soil nutrients. Results demonstrated that vegetation in the WLFZ was dominated by annuals, i.e., Echinochloa crusgalli and Bidens tripartita, and perennials including Cynodon dactylon, and plant species richness and diversity were negatively associated with flooding duration, heavy metal contamination, and nutrients including total phosphorus, available phosphorus, available potassium, and nitrate. Our results suggest that plant species, recovering mainly through soil seed bank and regeneration of remnant individuals, have been influenced by the combined effects of environmental factors.

Spatial variability in structural and functional aspects of macrofauna communities and their environmental parameters in the Jade Bay (Wadden Sea Lower Saxony, southern North Sea)

Spatial distribution and functional structure of intertidal benthic macrofauna in relation to environmental variables in the Jade Bay (southern North Sea) were studied and compared with other intertidal areas of the Wadden Sea. A total of 128 stations covering the whole Jade Bay were sampled in summer 2009. A total of 114 taxa were found. Highest species numbers occurred in the subtidal areas, whereas highest mean abundances were found in the upper intertidal areas. Based on species abundance data, six significantly distinct macrofauna communities in the Jade Bay were identified and evaluated with multivariate statistics, univariate correlations and canonical correspondence analysis. Differences in these community patterns were caused by the response of the dominant species (Hydrobia ulvae, Tubificoides benedii, Pygospio elegans, Caulleriella killariensis, Scoloplos armiger, Urothoe poseidonis, Microprotopus maculatus) to prevailing environmental conditions along the gradient from the lower and exposed sandy intertidal areas via intermediate mixed sediments to the upper mudflat areas. Distribution patterns in relation to tidal zonation were best explained by variability in submergence time, Chlorophyll a (chl a) content and sediment composition (mud content), which are proxies for hydrodynamic conditions and food availability. Species inventory and species richness were comparable with other intertidal areas of the Wadden Sea, but the Jade Bay differs from these areas regarding dominant species. Differences in sediment composition and morphological characteristics (macrotidal versus mesotidal Wadden Sea areas) are discussed for comparison of regional differences.

Effects of short-term and prolonged saturation on seed germination of Amazonian floodplain forest species

Many tropical floodplain species show enhanced germination after submergence in annual flood waters. In this study, we tested seed germination response to time in water (ranging 2–84d) among Amazonian floodplain species. To test seed response to short-term saturation, seeds from ten flood-tolerant woody species were air-dried or placed in water (i.e., saturated) for 45h before germination. Germination rates varied across species, achieving 50% germination in 12–58d among saturated seeds and 2–84d among air-dry seeds. Short-term saturation enhanced germination of the five shade-tolerant species by 14–100%. Three light-demanding species (Pseudobombax, Cordia, and Vitex) increased germination by 3–48% following air-drying. Cecropia and Laetia had poor germination in germination chambers (<20%), but Cecropia doubled germination rates in sunlit shade houses. Long-term saturation (removing seeds at 2-week intervals over 12 weeks) of four species showed that prolonged submergence enhanced germination only among Crataeva. The wind-dispersed Pseudobombax was intolerant of submergence >14d, while water-and fish-dispersed Crataeva seeds increased germination rates with submergence time, peaking at 6 weeks and maintaining >80% germination for up to 12 weeks. None of the ten flood-tolerant species required prolonged submergence for germination. Short-term saturation was sufficient to stimulate germination for most species, while prolonged submergence enhanced germination for one species, Crataeva. While species differed in seed physiology and seed size, they grouped into successional guilds of light-demanding species with dry-tolerant seeds and shade-tolerant species with recalcitrant seeds.

PENGUINS TIME DIVES BY WING BEAT

Breath-hold divers face a dilemma: remain submerged to exploit rich hunting opportunities or return to the surface to replenish the air supply. ‘When to end a dive may not be a straightforward decision’, say Kozue Shiomi and colleagues from The University of Tokyo, Japan, and Scripps Institution of Oceanography, USA. Deep-diving animals, such as emperor penguins, decide to terminate a dive long before they make it back to the top, so what factors determine when a diving animal decides to begin ascending? Suspecting that the muscle work expended until they decide to return to the surface rather than submergence time might trigger an emperor penguin's return journey Shiomi, Katsufumi Sato and Paul Ponganis decided to analyse the dive profiles of emperor penguins diving freely in open sea and from an ice hole to find out what triggers the birds' decision to end a dive (p. 135).Using data collected from diving penguins on previous field trips, the trio analysed 15,978 dive profiles from 10 free-ranging birds and 495 dives from 3 birds foraging through an ice hole. Calculating the time when each penguin began its final ascent to the surface, the team realised that almost all free-ranging birds began their final ascent around 5.7min into the dive. However, penguins diving through the ice hole often dived for longer before performing an U-turn and returning to the ice hole, so some other factor must be sending them back to the surface.Analysing the birds' acceleration patterns to calculate the number of wing beats taken before turning to return to the ice hole, the team realised that the birds used on average 237 wing beats before embarking on their return. ‘We suggest the decision [to return to the surface] was constrained not by elapsed time, but by the number of strokes, and thus, perhaps cumulative muscle work’, say Shiomi and colleagues.