Time-lapse Electrical Resistivity Tomography Monitoring Research Articles

Assessing the risk of slope failure to highway infrastructure using automated time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography monitoring

Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) monitoring provides time-lapse images of the subsurface. These images can be used to assess spatiotemporal variation in moisture content, which is a key driver of slope failure, making ERT monitoring an effective tool to evaluate precursory conditions of failure. This work presents the results of ERT monitoring on a slope above a major highway located on the border between England and Wales. During highway construction in the 1960s the slope was subject to several large landslide events which resulted in the re-design of the carriageway and installation of engineered mitigation measures. A section of the slope known as the ‘partially slipped area’ exhibited partial displacement during this time but did not progress to full slope failure, and therefore presents an ongoing risk to the highway, even though it does not experience ongoing displacement. An ERT monitoring system was installed across this area to monitor subsurface variations in moisture content. The results show a complex pattern of subsurface moisture dynamics within the partially slipped area when compared to the adjacent area of stable slope. This is most likely a result of the uneven and hummocky terrain in the partially slipped area and its effects on rainfall infiltration, storage and drainage, combined with the displacement-induced jointing present in the underlying sandstone units. The ERT results are used to assess the volume of unstable ground, placing the volume at the upper end of estimates from previous studies. Furthermore, analysis of the ERT dataset for surface displacements shows no movement at the site, which is confirmed by analysis of differential LiDAR plots and ground motion data derived from InSAR. This study demonstrates the application of ERT monitoring on a low activity, high risk slope, highlighting the need to understand subsurface processes at the slope-scale to inform long-term slope management.

Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Monitoring for Landslides: Case Study in the Lantai Area, Yilan Taiping Mountain, Northeast Taiwan

Water saturation in the bedrock or colluvium is highly related to most landslide hazards, and rainfall is likely a crucial factor. The dynamic processes of onsite rock/soil mechanics could be revealed via monitoring using the electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) technique and Archie’s law. This study aims to investigate water saturation changes over time using time-lapse ERT images, providing a powerful method for monitoring landslide events. A fully automatic remote resistivity monitoring system was deployed to acquire hourly electrical resistivity data using a nontraditional hybrid array in the Lantai area of Yilan Taiping Mountain in Northeast Taiwan from 2019 to 2021. Six subzones in borehole ERT images were examined for the temporal and spatial resistivity variations, as well as possible pathways of the groundwater. Two representative cases of inverted electrical resistivity images varying with precipitation may be correlated with water saturation changes in the studied hillslope, implying the process of rainfall infiltration. Layers with decreased and increased electrical resistivity are also observed before sliding events. Accordingly, we suggest that high-frequency time-lapse ERT monitoring could play a crucial role in landslide early warning.

Water content dynamics at plot scale – comparison of time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography monitoring and pore pressure modelling

Physically-based dynamic modelling of shallow landslide susceptibility rests on several assumptions and simplifications. However, the applicability of physically-based models is only rarely tested in the field at the appropriate scale. This paper presents results of a spray irrigation experiment conducted on a plot of 100m2 on an Alpine slope susceptible to shallow landsliding. Infiltrating precipitation applied at a constant rate (27.5mm/h for 5.3h) was monitored by means of 2D time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography, combined with time-domain reflectometry sensors installed at various depths. In addition, regolith characteristics were assessed by dynamic cone penetration tests using a light-weight cone penetrometer. The spray irrigation experiment resulted in a vertically progressing wetting front to a depth of 80–100cm. Below that, the unconsolidated material was already saturated by rainfall in the previous days. The observed mean resistivity reduction attributed to infiltrating water during irrigation was scaled to pressure head. Mean variations in pore pressure were reproduced by a linear diffusion model also used in physically-based dynamic landslide susceptibility modelling. Sensitive parameters (hydraulic conductivity and specific storage) were tested over selected value ranges and calibrated. Calibrated parameter values are within published and experimentally derived ranges. The results of the comparison of observations and model results suggest that the model is capable of reproducing mean changes of pore pressure at a suitable scale for physically-based modelling of shallow landslide susceptibility. However, small-scale variations in pore pressure that may facilitate the triggering of shallow landslides are not captured by the model.

Evaluation and localization of an artificial drainage network by 3D time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography.

In France, 10% of total arable land is equipped with subsurface drainage systems, to control winter and spring waterlogging due to a temporary perched water table. Most of these systems were installed in the1980s and have aged since then and may now need maintenance. Sometimes, the location of the systems is known, but the standard situation in France is that the original as-built master sketches are no longer available. Performance assessment of drainage systems and curative actions are complicated since drain location is unknown. In this article, the authors test the application of a non-destructive drain detection method which consists in water injection at the outfall of the drainage network combined with time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) monitoring. To assess the performance of this methodology, which consists in measuring electrical resistivity from electrodes placed at the nodes of a 1.2-m regular mesh, the authors interpreted the signal using a two-step approach. The first step is based on 3D ERT numerical modelling during a scenario of surface infiltration processes (forward modelling followed by geophysical inversion); this step optimizes the ERT method for locating the infiltration at depths below 1m. The second step is the validation of the results obtained by numerical modelling with an experimental data set, using water injection into the drainage network combined with time-lapse ERT monitoring on an experimental field site. The results showed the relevance of time-lapse ERT monitoring on a small agricultural plot for locating the drainage network. The numerical results also showed several limitations of the combined methodology: (i) it is necessary to use an electrode spacing unit less than 1.20m, which does not facilitate investigation on large agriculture plots, (ii) measurements must be taken when resistivity contrast is the strongest between the infiltration area and the soil and (iii) the volume of water needed for injection can limit the extension of the method.

Improved time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography monitoring of dense non-aqueous phase liquids with surface-to-horizontal borehole arrays

Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) has long-standing potential to improve characterization of sites contaminated with dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs). However, ERT is rarely used at DNAPL sites due to the complexity of the DNAPL target coupled with the inherent limitations of traditional (surface and cross-hole) ERT configurations. Horizontal boreholes are being increasingly used in remedial strategies at contaminated field sites. This paper presents a novel surface-to-horizontal borehole (S2HB) ERT configuration for DNAPL site investigations. This array configuration is combined with four-dimensional (4D) inversion methods (applied on two-dimensional (2D) time-lapse monitoring datasets) to explore the potential benefit of S2HB ERT for mapping the spatial and temporal evolution of DNAPL mass during remediation. A field scale DNAPL remediation scenario was first simulated by a coupled DNAPL-ERT model. This demonstrated that S2HB ERT may provide significant improvements over surface ERT, particularly for delineating DNAPL mass removal at depth. A laboratory experiment was then performed to validate the S2HB ERT approach in a physical system. The experiment confirmed that 4D S2HB ERT provides improved time-lapse monitoring of NAPL changes. Confidence in the ERT responses obtained from the experiment was increased by direct comparison to the actual distribution of NAPL mapped by excavation. Independent simulation of the experiment with the DNAPL-ERT model demonstrated that the model is reliable for simulating real systems. This initial study demonstrates significantly improved resistivity imaging with surface-to-horizontal borehole ERT and its potential as a non-destructive site characterization tool for mapping DNAPL mass changes during remediation.

Evaluating four-dimensional time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography for monitoring DNAPL source zone remediation

Practical, non-invasive tools do not currently exist for mapping the remediation of dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs). Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) exhibits significant potential but has not yet become a practitioner's tool due to challenges in interpreting the survey results at real sites. This study explores the effectiveness of recently developed four-dimensional (4D, i.e., 3D space plus time) time-lapse surface ERT to monitor DNAPL source zone remediation. A laboratory experiment demonstrated the approach for mapping a changing NAPL distribution over time. A recently developed DNAPL-ERT numerical model was then employed to independently simulate the experiment, providing confidence that the DNAPL-ERT model is a reliable tool for simulating real systems. The numerical model was then used to evaluate the potential for this approach at the field scale. Four DNAPL source zones, exhibiting a range of complexity, were initially simulated, followed by modeled time-lapse ERT monitoring of complete DNAPL remediation by enhanced dissolution. 4D ERT inversion provided estimates of the regions of the source zone experiencing mass reduction with time. Results show that 4D time-lapse ERT has significant potential to map both the outline and the center of mass of the evolving treated portion of the source zone to within a few meters in each direction. In addition, the technique can provide a reasonable, albeit conservative, estimate of the DNAPL volume remediated with time: 25% underestimation in the upper 2m and up to 50% underestimation at late time between 2 and 4m depth. The technique is less reliable for identifying cleanup of DNAPL stringers outside the main DNAPL body. Overall, this study demonstrates that 4D time-lapse ERT has potential for mapping where and how quickly DNAPL mass changes in real time during site remediation.

Use of time-lapse resistivity tomography to determine freshwater lens morphology

Time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography (TLERT) was used to determine the freshwater-lens morphology in local scale at Carey Island, Selangor, Malaysia. TLERT images with geological background formation history, borehole and hydraulic conductivity data were used to interpret the changes of morphology. Subsurface resistivity changes were measured by ABEM Terrameter SAS4000 and ES10-64 electrode selector. TLERT monitoring using resistivity images on tide increment shows the freshwater lens morphology exhibited a thin and thick layer side by side of 400m length of resistivity survey line. The occurrences of heterogeneous alluvium sediments in local scale created the different variability of hydraulic conductivity. The asymmetry of the freshwater lens enabled the tide force increment to pass through the differences in hydraulic conductivity. This is a major factor determining the morphology of freshwater lens in local scale. The results can assist in planning a strategy for sustainable groundwater exploration of local scale at the limited recharge area.

Improvement of electrical resistivity tomography for leachate injection monitoring

Leachate recirculation is a key process in the scope of operating municipal waste landfills as bioreactors, which aims to increase the moisture content to optimize the biodegradation in landfills. Given that liquid flows exhibit a complex behaviour in very heterogeneous porous media, in situ monitoring methods are required. Surface time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) is usually proposed. Using numerical modelling with typical 2D and 3D injection plume patterns and 2D and 3D inversion codes, we show that wrong changes of resistivity can be calculated at depth if standard parameters are used for time-lapse ERT inversion. Major artefacts typically exhibit significant increases of resistivity (more than +30%) which can be misinterpreted as gas migration within the waste. In order to eliminate these artefacts, we tested an advanced time-lapse ERT procedure that includes (i) two advanced inversion tools and (ii) two alternative array geometries. The first advanced tool uses invariant regions in the model. The second advanced tool uses an inversion with a “minimum length” constraint. The alternative arrays focus on (i) a pole–dipole array (2D case), and (ii) a star array (3D case). The results show that these two advanced inversion tools and the two alternative arrays remove almost completely the artefacts within +/−5% both for 2D and 3D situations. As a field application, time-lapse ERT is applied using the star array during a 3D leachate injection in a non-hazardous municipal waste landfill. To evaluate the robustness of the two advanced tools, a synthetic model including both true decrease and increase of resistivity is built. The advanced time-lapse ERT procedure eliminates unwanted artefacts, while keeping a satisfactory image of true resistivity variations. This study demonstrates that significant and robust improvements can be obtained for time-lapse ERT monitoring of leachate recirculation in waste landfills.

Time-lapse ERT monitoring of an injection/withdrawal experiment in a shallow unconfined aquifer

To quantify performance of 3D time-lapse electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), a sequential injection/withdrawal experiment was designed for monitoring the pump-and-capture remediation of a conductive solute in an unconfined alluvial aquifer. Prior information is incorporated into the inversion procedure via regularization with respect to a reference model according to three protocols: (1) independent regularization involving a single reference model, (2) background regularization involving a reference model obtained via inversion of preinjection data, and (3) time-lapse regularization involving an evolving reference model obtained via inversion of data from previous experimental stages. Emplacement and sequential withdrawal of the solute is clearly imaged for all protocols. Time-lapse regularization results in greater amounts of model structure, while providing signifi-cant computational savings. ERT-estimated electrical conductivity is used to predict solute concentration and solute mass in the aquifer. At any experimental stage, we are able to estimate total solute mass in the aquifer with a maximum accuracy of 60%–85% depending on regularization protocol and survey geometry. We also estimate the withdrawn solute mass for every experimental stage (the change in mass between experimental stages). Withdrawn mass estimates are more reliable than total mass estimates and do not exhibit systematic underprediction or dependence on regularization protocol. Withdrawn mass estimates are accurate for changes in mass below [Formula: see text] of potassium bromide [Formula: see text] for horizontal and vertical dipole-dipole surveys, respectively. Estimating the withdrawn solute mass does not require background subtraction and, thus, does not require background data.