Drying Time Research Articles

Effects of thermal pretreatment and puffing medium variously modify the microstructure and quality of crisps obtained from two banana varieties

Fat-free crisp food products are garnering more attention from modern consumers. Hot air combined explosion puffing is one processing method that can produce a crisp food snack. Therefore, the influences of thermal pretreatment, banana variety, puffing medium, and puffing temperature upon the microstructural changes, drying time, specific energy consumption (SEC), and banana crisp qualities were studied. The banana slices, Namwa (NW) and Homtong (HT) varieties, were blanched with hot water (HW) then hot air-dried at 90 °C and combined with explosion puffing with either superheated steam (SS-puffing) or hot air (HA-puffing) from 170 to 190 °C for 2 min. The experimental results showed a stronger cellular structure and lower enzymatic activities for NW samples compared to the HT samples. This led to a harder texture, longer total drying time, and less browning for NW crisps. The cellular structure of HT was more disrupted than NW after HW pretreatment. Such modified structure characteristics caused a decrease in volume ratio and lower crispiness for HT products, whereas the NW crisp had increasing volume ratio and higher crispiness relative to the non-blanched crisps. Even though the blanching pretreatments retarded browning and improved color uniformity for both banana varieties, the process increased the total drying time and the SEC values of the drying process. By applying SS-puffing and raising the puffing temperature of blanched NW samples, higher puffed volume and crispier texture products were obtained. Additionally, the total drying time and the SEC value were also reduced. The SS-puffing also led to browner products for both NW and HT samples. Finally, the overall preference score was markedly higher for blanched NW crisp compared to blanched HT crisp; however, neither score exceeded that of commercial products.

Evapotranspiration and groundwater inputs control the timing of diel cycling of stream drying during low-flow periods

Geologic, geomorphic, and climatic factors have been hypothesized to influence where streams dry, but hydrologists struggle to explain the temporal drivers of drying. Few hydrologists have isolated the role that vegetation plays in controlling the timing and location of stream drying in headwater streams. We present a distributed, fine-scale water balance through the seasonal recession and onset of stream drying by combining spatiotemporal observations and modeling of flow presence/absence, evapotranspiration, and groundwater inputs. Surface flow presence/absence was collected at fine spatial (~80 m) and temporal (15-min) scales at 25 locations in a headwater stream in southwestern Idaho, USA. Evapotranspiration losses were modeled at the same locations using the Simultaneous Heat and Water (SHAW) model. Groundwater inputs were estimated at four of the locations using a mixing model approach. In addition, we compared high-frequency, fine-resolution riparian normalized vegetation difference index (NDVI) with stream flow status. We found that the stream wetted and dried on a daily basis before seasonally drying, and daily drying occurred when evapotranspiration outputs exceeded groundwater inputs, typically during the hours of peak evapotranspiration. Riparian NDVI decreased when the stream dried, with a ~2-week lag between stream drying and response. Stream diel drying cycles reflect the groundwater and evapotranspiration balance, and riparian NDVI may improve stream drying predictions for groundwater-supported headwater streams.

Physical, Sensorial, and Physicochemical Characteristics of Arabica Coffee Dried under Two Solar Brightness Conditions

The solar drying process is a critical postharvest stage for preserving coffee quality and is widely used in coffee-producing countries. A descriptive exploratory study was carried out in zones with different annual solar brightness to determine the climate variability influence on solar drying. Variables related to the evolution of drying, physical and sensory quality, and the physicochemical characteristics of the Castillo® coffee variety were analyzed. Coffee quality was assessed by means of SCA protocol. An automatic system was designed to record variables inside the dryers and mass loss. The drying rates were different by climatic zone above and below 0.52%∙h−1. Drying time was significantly longer in less solar brightness zones (Wilcoxon test). An inverse linear relationship between rewetting percentage and bean moisture was observed. Regarding coffee quality, the average scores were 81.37 and 80.93 SCA points for the climatic zones with the lowest and highest solar brightness, respectively. The bean color, water activity, acidity, and fat content did not vary between climatic zones. The coffee quality was not affected by solar drying in contrasting climatic conditions, despite the differences in drying time. Solar drying behaviors were identified that allow for the development of strategies for improving the process efficiency and management of coffee.

Investigation of the Effects of Infrared and Hot Air Oven Drying Methods on Drying Behaviour and Colour Parameters of Red Delicious Apple Slices

This present study investigated thin-layer drying characteristics of dried apple slices for a range of temperatures from 40 °C to 80 °C at a constant drying time of 10 h under infrared (IR) and hot air oven (OV) drying methods. The fresh apples were cut into a cylindrical size of thickness of 8.07 ± 0.05 mm and a diameter of 66.27 ± 3.13 mm. Fourteen thin-layer mathematical models available in the literature were used to predict the drying process. The goodness of fit of the drying models was assessed by the root mean square error (RMSE), chi-square (χ2), coefficient of determination (R2) and modelling efficiency (EF). The results showed that the lightness and greenness/redness of the dried sample, total colour change, chroma change, colour index, whiteness index, bulk density, final surface area and final volume significantly (p-value < 0.05) correlated with the drying temperature under IR. Under OV, however, only the final surface area and bulk density of the dried samples showed significant (p-value < 0.05) with the drying temperature. Shrinkage values for OV and IR methods showed both increasing and decreasing trends along with the drying temperatures. The Weibull distribution model proved most suitable for describing the drying processes based on the statistical validation metrics of the goodness of fit. In future studies, the combined effect of the above-mentioned drying methods and other drying techniques on apple slices among other agricultural products should be examined to obtain a better insight into the drying operations and quality improvement of the final product for preservation and consumer acceptability.

Generation of key aroma compounds in fat and lean portions of non-smoked bacon induced via lipid pyrolysis reaction

This study explored the evolution of key aroma compounds and their lipid precursors in the lean (LN) and fat (FT) portions of non-smoked bacon during hot air drying. The results showed that the LN portion contained most of the aroma compounds in the bacon (>88%). The volatile content of the FT portion increased as the drying time increased, whereas that of the LN portion reached a maximum within 24 h and then decreased. Based on the highest volatile contents (4889.48 ± 202.06 µg/kg) and sensory scores, 24 h was considered the optimal drying time. For key aroma compounds, hexanal and 2,3-octanedione were derived from free fatty acids and polar lipids. Notably, 1-octen-3-ol was generated only from polar lipids in the FT and LN portions. The 2-undecenal and (E, E)-2,4-decadienal were produced by the oxidation of neutral lipids in the FT portion. Dihydro-5-pentyl-2(3H)-furanone was derived from polar lipids in the LN portion. Altogether, these findings provide theoretical insights into improving the aroma of bacon by optimizing raw material selection and processing methods.

Effects of gum-based coatings combined with ultrasonic pretreatment before drying on quality of sour cherries

Application of pretreatment methods such as ultrasound and edible coatings is used to reduce processing time and/or preserve food product quality in drying technology. The aim of this research was to measure the impacts of gum-based coatings (guar, sodium alginate, and basil seed gums) in combination with sonication before drying on total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant capacity (AC), effective water diffusivity (Deff), total color difference (ΔE), surface shrinkage (SS), and rehydration ratio (RR) of sour cherries. Ultrasonic pretreatment (40 kHz, 150 W, at 25 °C, for 12 min) increased the TPC, AC, Deff, and RR, and decreased the drying time, ΔE, and SS values of sour cherries. Edible coating increased the TPC, AC, drying time, and RR, and decreased the Deff, ΔE, and SS values of sonicated sour cherries. The TPC for untreated, uncoated-sonicated, guar gum-coated, sodium alginate-coated, and basil seed gum-coated sour cherries were 2965.9, 3398.1, 3480.8, 3511.0, and 3898.3 µg gallic acid equivalent/g dry, respectively. The highest value of AC (71.2±3.7 %) was observed on coated sour cherries by basil seed gum. The experimental data for drying curves were fitted to several widely used models, and the Midilli model using the experimental constants that best represent the drying rate of sour cherries. The edible coatings significantly reduced the color changes and shrinkage of dried sour cherries, with the lowest ΔE and SS values in the basil seed gum-coated samples (p < 0.05).

Optimized LiFePO4-Based Cathode Production for Lithium-Ion Batteries through Laser- and Convection-Based Hybrid Drying Process

The drying of electrodes for lithium-ion batteries is one of the most energy- and cost-intensive process steps in battery production. Laser-based drying processes have emerged as promising candidates for electrode manufacturing due to their direct energy input, spatial homogeneity within the laser spot, and rapid controllability. However, it is unclear to what extent electrode and cell quality are affected by higher heating and drying rates. Hybrid systems as a combination of laser- and convection-based drying were investigated in an experimental study with water-processed LFP cathodes. The manufactured electrodes were compared with purely laser-dried and purely convection-dried samples in terms of drying times and quality characteristics. The electrodes were characterized with regard to physical properties like adhesion and electronic conductivity, as well as electrochemical performance using the rate capability. Regarding adhesion and electronic conductivity, the LFP-based cathodes dried in the hybrid-drying process by laser and convection showed similar quality characteristics compared to conventionally dried cathodes, while, at the same time, significantly reducing the overall drying time. In terms of electrochemical performance, measured by the rate capability, no significant differences were found between the drying technologies used. These findings demonstrate the great potential of laser- and convection-based hybrid drying of LFP cathodes to enhance the electrode-drying process in terms of energy efficiency and operational costs.

Comparison on drying characteristic, efficiency, unit drying cost and quality of maize dried by a novel multi-crop mobile dryer, existing industrial dryer and sun drying method

This research aimed to investigate the effects of different drying methods on drying characteristic, drying efficiency, unit drying cost and quality of maize grain dried by newly developed HSTU multi-crop mobile dryer (HMMD) which was operated by alternative heating sources such as LPG and electric heater (EH), existing HSTU multi-crop industrial dryer (HMID) which was operated by rice husk fired cyclonic furnace and sun drying method. The comparative drying experiments were carried out at the drying temperature of 60±5 °C, 70±5 °C and 80 ± 10 °C for HMMD-LPG, HMMD-EH and HMID, respectively, while sun drying was accomplished at 30±5 °C. The results indicated that the HMMD was capable of drying 820 ± 10 kg maize in each batch from 29.8 ± 0.87 % (wb) moisture to 14 ± 0.56 % (wb). Drying time in HMMD-LPG, HMMD-EH, HMID, and sun drying were 8.24 ± 0.18, 7.36 ± 0.17, 10.18 ± 0.16 and 16.14 ± 0.24 h, respectively, indicated that HMMD reduced time significantly for drying of freshly harvested maize. Unit drying cost in BDT/kg for EH and LPG integrated HMMD was 2.64 ± 0.17 and 1.69 ± 0.10, respectively, while lesser unit cost was found in HMID and sun drying methods. However, drying efficiency of HMMD-LPG was the highest (64.79 ± 1.21 %) while HMID exhibited the lowest drying efficiency (49.42 ± 1.63 %). Mechanically dried grain especially by HMMD-LPG was better or comparable in terms of nutritional quality than sun dried maize. HMMD-LPG and HMMD-EH dried grain exhibited a lower ΔE value than HMID and sun dried samples which indicated that the color properties were not affected so much by the drying method. Furthermore, maize samples dried in HMMD had lower microbial loads than other products. Therefore, the HSTU multi-crop mobile dryer with alternative heating source is recommended as an alternative drying technique for quick and safe management of high moisture maize at farm level in Bangladesh and other subtropical countries in contrast to weather depended sun drying method.

Manufacturing and Evaluating of Indirect Solar Dryers

–Indirect solar drying uses solar radiation to heat air and dry agricultural products in harvest time to store them for a longer time and reduce waste. The dryer consists of a solar air heater collector, a drying chamber, and an air ventilation system. In this study, an indirect solar dryer system is constructed and ventilated with an electrical fan. Experiments are conducted on the system using eggplant as an agricultural sample on 2 consequent days (29th and 30th October 2022), to evaluate the system data recorded during the drying process in terms of the temperature for points in the system, solar radiation, and the sample mass. The temperature measurements are ambient, collector, and dried chamber outlet temperatures. The results show that the most effective time for solar drying is between 9:00 and 16:00, and the drying system air temperature is raised to about 40°C when solar radiation reached more than 600 W/m2 in the noon time. The weighted mass is used to evaluate the drying process, and maximum drying rate and drying efficiency are obtained on the 1st day of the drying before noon time.

EFFECT OF ETHANOL IMMERSION AND ULTRASOUND PRETREATMENTS ON THE KINETICS OF CONVECTIVE DRYING OF QUINCE

This work studied the impact of ethanol immersion (E), ultrasound (U), and ultrasound-ethanol immersion (UE) for 10, and 20 min on the drying characteristics of quince. After pretreatments, the samples were dried at a hot dryer at 90℃ and air velocity of 2 m/s. Drying time was reduced by 50% for samples pretreated in Ultrasonic-Ethanol (UE20) for 20 min. Moisture diffusion coefficient varied from 1.880 to 2.933×10-9 m2/s. The friction drag force, convective heat transfer coefficient, and convective mass transfer coefficient were 6.110×10-6 N, 24.077 W/m2K, and 0.020 m/s, respectively. The thermal conductivity, the specific heat, and the density of quince samples ranged from 0.5278 to 0.5876 W/m. K, 3554.00 to 3908.00 J/kg. K, and 814.95 to 904.60 kg/m3, respectively. Among all pretreatments, UE20 could prefer for significant decreases in the drying time and improve drying characteristics of quince at the industrial extent.

Multidimensional investigation of the effect of pre-treatment solutions on drying characteristics and raisin quality

This study aims to evaluate the relationships between pre-treatment solution, variety, drying characteristics, and raisin quality in raisin production, using multivariate analysis methods. This study was conducted on raisins obtained by dipping Bineteti and Zeyti local seed grape varieties in 13 different pre-treatment solutions and drying in the sun on a concrete drying platform. In the study, data of 15 numerical variables related to drying characteristics and raisin quality were reduced to four principal components (PC1, PC2, PC3 and PC4) by principal component analysis (PCA), and their score values were numerically obtained. Then, two grape varieties, 13 pre-treatment solutions, and the four principal components were analyzed by non-linear principal component analysis (NLPCA). In addition, cluster analysis was performed to determine the prominent pre-treatment solutions in terms of drying characteristics and raisin quality. It was determined that the pre-treatment solutions were effective on L*, a*, b*, chroma (C*), hue (h°), a/b values, antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, and drying time constituting PC1. It was remarkable that the colour parameters in prominent clusters in cluster analysis also form PC1 in PCA analysis. The best pre-treatment solutions were found to be the "5% K2CO3 + 1% olive oil" solution for the Bineteti variety and the "5% K2CO3 + 2% hazelnut oil" solution for the Zeyti variety. It was determined that the pre-treatment solutions recommended for the varieties caused to be obtained brighter, more vibrant, and yellow-coloured raisins and shortened the drying time, and had positive effects on the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity.

Influence of electrohydrodynamics on the drying characteristics and physicochemical properties of garlic.

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) drying, natural air drying (AD) and hot air drying (HAD) were used to comprehensively study the drying characteristics and physicochemical properties of garlic, and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and other technologies were used as detection methods. In terms of drying characteristics, HAD has the largest effective diffusion coefficient of moisture and the shortest average drying time. EHD-treated garlic slices had the most attractive color, the highest rehydration rate, the most stable cell structure, the highest content of active ingredients, and the most stable protein secondary structure. Therefore, electrohydrodynamic drying is a promising garlic slice drying technology and provides an effective method for the large-scale production of high-quality garlic.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND DRYING TIME ON QUALITY REDCHILI POWDER (CAPSICUM ANNUUM L.)

Red chili (Capsicum annuum L.) is an essential horticultural commodity for the human. However, its freshness level is difficult to maintain so it cannot last long. An alternative to this problem is to process it into powder through the drying process so that it has a long shelf life. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of drying temperature, drying time, and the interaction between the two on the quality of red chili powder. The research was conducted at the Faculty of Agriculture, Syiah Kuala University from May to June 2023. The study used a Completely Randomized Design 3x3 factorial pattern with 3 replications, there were 9 treatment combinations, 27 experimental units. The first factor is drying temperature with 3 levels (60, 65, and 70ËšC) and the second factor is drying time with 3 levels (20, 23, and 26 hours). Observation parameters included yield, water content, vitamin C content, capsaicin content, ash content, fat content, color measurement and organoleptic test. The results showed that drying temperature had a very significant effect on yield, water content, vitamin C content, capsaicin content, ash content, fat content, color, and organoleptic test. The best temperature was 60ËšC. Drying time has a very significant effect on yield, water content, vitamin C content, capsaicin content, ash content, fat content, and color (a and b) and has a significant effect on color (L) and organoleptic test (smell). The best drying time is 20 hours. There is a very significant interaction between temperature and drying time on yield, moisture content, capsaicin content, ash content, and organoleptic test (aroma) and there is a significant interaction on vitamin C content, color (L), and organoleptic test (texture). The best treatment combination of temperature 60ËšC with a drying time of 20 hours.

Experimental Study of The Potential for Energy Absorption and Drying Time of Coffee Beans Using a Dome Dryer Type Dryer in The Sukmailang Area of Pesawaran Regency

The traditional drying method has many weaknesses, namely it is very dependent on the weather, so that drying takes a long time. Traditional drying methods result in frequent contamination of dust, dirt, insects, and if wet they are prone to moss growth due to delays in drying during cloudy or rainy weather. This study designed a coffee bean dryer with electric power which is the result of converting solar energy with the help of photovoltaic which is first stored in the battery. The main components of this tool are: drying chamber, drying roof, tray, thermostat, heating element, this test is carried out to determine changes in seed moisture content, required power and efficiency. The temperature is set at 50°C with a fan speed of 3m/s. The fastest decrease in water content occurred in the mass of 1 kg coffee bean samples starting on June 22, 2022 from 28.5% water content to 12% moisture content. Meanwhile, the longest decrease in the water content of coffee beans was at a mass of 2 kg coffee beans on June 24, 2022, the initial water content of coffee beans was 29.3% to 13.2%. The greater the mass of the coffee beans to be dried, the greater the time required to dry the coffee beans using a dome dryer. The maximum power is in the Sukmailang area, Pesawaran district which has a plateau as high as 1200 meters above sea level (MDPL) with an average power of 11.38 Watt. The highest power is produced at 12:00 WIB with a value of 16.49 Watts. The use of solar panels in the Sukmailang area, Pesawaran Regency which has a plateau as high as 1200 (MDPL) is still not effectively utilized because the results obtained have an average efficiency value of 2.22%

Experimental Study of The Potential for Energy Absorption and Drying Time of Coffee Beans Using a Dome Dryer Type Dryer in The Sukmailang Area of Pesawaran Regency

The traditional drying method has many weaknesses, namely it is very dependent on the weather, so that drying takes a long time. Traditional drying methods result in frequent contamination of dust, dirt, insects, and if wet they are prone to moss growth due to delays in drying during cloudy or rainy weather. This study designed a coffee bean dryer with electric power which is the result of converting solar energy with the help of photovoltaic which is first stored in the battery. The main components of this tool are: drying chamber, drying roof, tray, thermostat, heating element, this test is carried out to determine changes in seed moisture content, required power and efficiency. The temperature is set at 50°C with a fan speed of 3m/s. The fastest decrease in water content occurred in the mass of 1 kg coffee bean samples starting on June 22, 2022 from 28.5% water content to 12% moisture content. Meanwhile, the longest decrease in the water content of coffee beans was at a mass of 2 kg coffee beans on June 24, 2022, the initial water content of coffee beans was 29.3% to 13.2%. The greater the mass of the coffee beans to be dried, the greater the time required to dry the coffee beans using a dome dryer. The maximum power is in the Sukmailang area, Pesawaran district which has a plateau as high as 1200 meters above sea level (MDPL) with an average power of 11.38 Watt. The highest power is produced at 12:00 WIB with a value of 16.49 Watts. The use of solar panels in the Sukmailang area, Pesawaran Regency which has a plateau as high as 1200 (MDPL) is still not effectively utilized because the results obtained have an average efficiency value of 2.22%

Measurement of Antioxidant Activity of Soldam Plum (Flesh, Peel) by Different Drying Time

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the optimal hot air drying time to use Asian Soldam plum to be utilized as a functional food ingredient, and to this end, the antioxidant components and activity changes of Soldam plum (both flesh and peel) applied with various drying times (0, 12, 18, 24 h) at 70°C were compared and analyzed.Methods: Samples of Soldam plum flesh and peel, which had undergone hot air drying, were subjected to hot water extraction, and their antioxidant components (total polyphenol and total flavonoid contents) as well as antioxidant activity (DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging capabilities) were measured.Results: The physiological activities of the hot water-extracted flesh and peel exhibited an increase with drying time, peaking at 18 h, compared to the fresh (not dried) counterparts, but decreased at 24 h. The highest level of antioxidant activity was observed in the peel of Soldam plum dried for 18 h.Conclusion: Optimal physiological activity in the peel of Soldam is achieved when it is dried for 18 h using hot air. In future product development utilizing dried Soldam plum, an 18 h drying period is recommended. Additionally, further research should explore enzyme activity and anti-inflammatory properties in addition to antioxidant activity.

Qualitative, energy and environmental aspects of microwave drying of pre-treated apple slices

In the present research, response parameters such as specific energy consumption (SEC), thermal efficiency (TE), energy efficiency (EF), drying time (DT), greenhouse gas (GHG) emission (such as CO2 and NOx), and quality features (color variation and shrinkage) were modeled by response surface methodology (RSM) for apple slices dried in a microwave dryer under ultrasonication (30 ℃—10 min) and blanching (80 °C—2 min) pretreatments. Also, RSM was applied to optimize two independent parameters including microwave power and sample thickness in the levels 100, 200, and 300 W and 2, 4, and 6 mm, respectively. The results indicated the significant influence (P < 0.01) of the independent parameters on the response parameters. The vales of SEC, DT, GHG emission, shrinkage, and color difference were linearly decreased with the declining sample thickness and increasing microwave power, while the energy and thermal efficiencies were increased by a quadratic equation. The use of ultrasonication and blanching pretreatments decreased the SEC, GHG emissions, and DT; while improving the quality of the samples as compared to the non-treated slices. The optimization results showed the optimal drying times (31.55, 82.19, and 50.55 min), SEC (3.42, 10.07, and 4.37 MJ/kg), CO2 with natural gas (1539.75, 1518.75, and 4585 g), CO2 with gas oil (3662.53, 2099.25, 2721.25 g), NOx with natural gas (10.094, 9.956, and 12.906 g), and NOx with gas oil (12.934, 12.758, and 16.538 g) at a microwave power of 300 W and sample thickness of 2 mm with desirability of 0.921, 0.935, and 0.916 for control samples, ultrasonicated, and blanched, respectively.

Microwave drying of bitter yam (Dioscorea bulbifera): An approach of MATLAB image processing to comprehend moisture diffusion process

AbstractThis study examined how microwave power loading (300–600 W) affected Dioscorea bulbifera (BY) slice drying, colorimetric values, moisture diffusion, textural, and rehydration properties. Drying time was reduced from 100 to 40 min with increased microwave power from 300 to 600 W. Drying rate and moisture diffusivity (4.948 × 10−9–1.262 × 10−8 m2/s) enhanced with microwave power and was observed falling rate drying. The initial and final moisture content of BY slices were 87% (w.b.) and 4.5% (w.b.), respectively. The activation energy for BY slices was 9.6 W/g. To illustrate the drying and color change behavior of BY, experimental data were fitted to 10 dryings and 4 color kinetics models. The Midilli–Kucuk model and the Fraction model were the best fitted for moisture and color parameters. The highest efficiency was 55.85% and the lowest specific energy consumption was 9.6 MJ/kg at 600 W microwave power. MATLAB microstructure characterization provided detailed pore analysis of microwave‐dried samples.Practical ApplicationsMicrowave‐dried yam can enhance storability, ease handling and transportation and protect against microbial activity, enzymatic browning and high‐water activity. Mathematical modeling of pretreated microwave‐dried yam is useful for industrial dryer design and large‐scale yam drying production. Additionally, yam flours have the potential for use in numerous applications, including noodles, extrudates, cookies, and bakery products. Further, yam flour may be a binder, thickener, and gelling agent.

PAINTS FORMULATION USING DIISOCYANATES AND 1,4 –DIAMINO ANTHRAQUINONE (1,4 DAQ) AS PIGMENTS AND POLYVINYL ALCOHOL AS BINDER, CHARACTERIZATION AND THEIR APPLICATION ON WOOD SUBSTRATE

The Paint and coatings industry produces a huge variety of products that protect, preserve, and also beautify the objects to which they are applied, however, the components are expensive, therefore there is the need to look for alternative constituents which are cheaper and more durable. Emulsion Paints were formulated using colourants produced from diisocyanates and 1,4 diamino anthraquinone and polyvinyl alcohol as binder. The constituents of the paint was stirred mechanically in a ceramic mortar and pestle for 1 hour, and it was applied on the substrate (ceiling board). The coated samples were subjected to physical characterization, viscosity, surface drying time, weathering and lightfastness and compared with a commercial paint (Emulsion paint). The results indicates a very good light fastness property of 6-7, for paints produced from hexamethylene diisocyanate and where resistant to weathering, while paints produced from 1,4 phenylene diisocyanate showed a poor light fastness of 1-2, however it also indicated resistant to weathering. Hexamethylene diisocyanate, is less expensive and is more durable and economical in emulsion paint production compared to 1,4 phenylene diisocyanate which fades easily and is also expensive.

The effects of elevation and soaking conditions on dry bean cooking time

AbstractDry beans and other pulses (e.g., chickpeas and cowpeas) are nutrient‐dense foods that promote human and environmental health. However, consumption is declining in many regions around the world. Addressing barriers to greater pulse intake is important to reverse this trend. Cooking time is one such barrier, with consumers viewing the long cooking times of many pulses as a hurdle to higher consumption due to lack of time or fuel availability. Equipping consumers with simple, accessible ways to reduce pulse cooking time is one way to mitigate this barrier. Accordingly, this study assessed changes to cooking time when pinto beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) were cooked at four elevations using different soaking conditions, which reflect a combination of the soaking method and salt added to the soaking solution. There were seven different cooking conditions: soaking via the overnight or quick soak method in only water or in 1% sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) solutions and a no soak with no salt added comparison. Using an overnight (12‐h) soak or a quick soak resulted in similar reductions in cooking time compared to unsoaked beans. Soaking in NaCl and NaHCO3 solutions further decreased cooking time than when only water was used, with the shortest cooking times seen for NaHCO3. Elevation also impacted cooking time, with the longest cooking time being for unsoaked beans at the highest testing elevation. Adding either salt to the soaking water reduced the effect of elevation. This information was synthesized to give consumers practical tips to reduce cooking time.