Timber Imports Research Articles

Linking the past to the future: A reality check on cross-border timber trade from Myanmar (Burma) to China

The rapid development of China's economy, changing of domestic forestry policy and economic globalization are gradually pushing China to the position of the largest timber importer worldwide. The issue of China's increasing timber imports is now receiving extensive attention from the international community. Existing studies that analyze China's global timber sourcing focus on international trade data or rules at a predominantly macro-level, while few empirical studies exist. This paper takes a grounded approach to empirically study the timber trade from Myanmar to China via Yunnan Province. Using a global value chain analysis, the research identifies the flow of timber along the value chain, the different actors involved in the trade, and the institutions that shape the actor's access to the value chain, before calculating the profits among the different actors. The results show the Sino-Burmese border timber trade originated from traditional border trade and was recently booming along with the economic development of China. Along the timber value chain, however, a few privileged actors parasitize the timber value by exploiting real market participants with the power entitled to them by both governments. The research argues the challenges to improve sustainable timber trade lie not only in national law enforcement, but also improving the governance structure of the value chain by improving the transparency and accountability of timber harvesting concessions and trade permits.

Opportunities and challenges for the protection and ecological functions promotion of natural forests in China

Excessive logging in China is the major cause of poor forest quality, degraded ecosystem functions, and near exhaustion of harvestable resources of the country’s natural forests. An overall extended moratorium on logging in the country’s natural forests has been launched since 2015, which is a suggested method for the gradual recovery of the structure and functions of these forests. However, the main purpose to manage the degraded natural forest after the moratorium remains not yet clear. This paper firstly reviews China’s natural forest management history and clarifies the causes accounting for natural status duo, and then analyses changes in domestic natural forests and timber supply and demand in China, identifies the problems related to the sustainable operation of natural forests, especially those requiring immediate attention. Results shows that as the demand for timber continues to increase rapidly, China will experience a severe imbalance between timber supply and demand. In the long run, timber imports alone cannot meet increasing domestic demands, natural forests remain the primary source of wood products. Many issues concerning management practices and operations technology remain, including ineffective overall spatial zoning, rough operation and management of timber forests, and financial difficulties in forested areas. All of these issues have prevented natural forests from realizing both their ecological functions and timber resource potential. A moratorium on timber harvesting would offer a valuable opportunity for natural forests to recover from decades of excessive logging, as well as an exciting chance to develop sustainable operational practices, ecological functions promotion and relevant technologies. In summary, strategies for the sustainable management and ecosystem services promotion of natural forests during a harvesting moratorium are suggested.

Iron Age utilization of silver fir (Abies alba) wood around the Heuneburg – Local origin or timber import?

The larger area of and around the Early Iron Age fortress Heuneburg is focus of decades of archaeological excavations and observations. Additionally, to deciduous oak (Quercus sp.) known as the main timber during this period (Middle to Late Hallstatt c. 750–450 BCE), silver fir (Abies alba) was found recently on the Heuneburg plateau itself and its surroundings. Silver fir is now recognized being a significant source of timber during the Iron Age, in a region where its nowadays natural status is debated and its occurrence is rare. The aim of this study was to determine the possible source of the used timber, which might have been taken from the some 80 km distant Abies-rich Black Forest on the primary bed rock or from stands developed on younger geological formations nearer to the site. For this approach, radiogenic strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analyses were performed on waterlogged wood and on charcoal remains buried in four archaeological contexts from Late Hallstatt period around the princely seat Heuneburg. The 87Sr/86Sr ratios were compared to those of living trees, soils and sediments with respect to the diverse geological background. The geological ground of the archaeological wood was narrowed down to molasse for three structures and to loess, moraine or mass chalk sites for one. The isotopic ratio thus points to growing sites more in the surrounding of the concerned archaeological sites and a more distant Black Forest source can be ruled out. Local evidence of Abies was additionally supported by palynological data from four archaeological sites and by anthracological data from a funeral context near the Heuneburg.

Timber economy in the Roman Age: charcoal data from the key site of Herculaneum (Naples, Italy)

The city of Herculaneum (Naples, southern Italy), buried by the volcanic eruption of Mount Somma-Vesuvius in 79 ad, is a key site for understanding the timber economy during the Roman period. In this paper, the results of charcoal analysis of different building element types are presented. Beams, joists, poles, planks and door and window frames were investigated allowing us a view of which timber the Romans preferred for building in this area. We also fit the taxonomic results into the reconstruction of the ancient Campanian landscape, and finally, we discuss the knowledge that the Romans had about the technological properties of the wood that they used for building and the possible selection criteria that they followed in choosing them. Coniferous timber is the preferred material for building purposes. Abies alba is especially used, this fact confirming its stronger presence in southern Italian woods during the past and suggesting that its decline is mainly due to human overexploitation. The large presence of Cupressus sempervirens, selectively used for the production of poles, confirms that this tree was cultivated in plantations for timber production in the Vesuvius area. Furthermore, it might indicate that cypress could have been present as a natural tree in the local vegetation, suggesting a forest type that nowadays almost completely disappeared from this area and from the entire Italy. The findings of Juglans regia, Pinus pinea and Olea europaea, typical elements of the Mediterranean cultural landscape, show that their use was not limited to fruit production and that Romans also appreciated their timber. Beside these local resources, the presence of Picea abies and Picea/Larix indicates the importation of timber from northerly regions, probably the northern Apennines and the Alps.

Conditions of forest transition in Asian countries

This study identifies the important factors that contribute to or inhibit forest transitions in nine Asian countries: China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Republic of Korea, Philippines, and Vietnam. A qualitative comparative analysis method was used to determine which conditions or combinations of conditions led to or prevented a forest transition. Under the condition of public ownership with no private forest tenure or ownership of forest land, there was no instance of forest transition among the nine countries studied. Under the condition of non-liberal timber trade policies, there was no instance of forest transition in the countries studied. The results of this analysis suggest that for a forest transition to occur, the country should liberalize timber import and provide forest tenure to the private sector. Based on these results, we argue that in order for a forest transition to take place or for REDD+ to be effective, the state should allow for private sector to participate in forest management and create market conditions that meet the demand for timber via trade policy alignment.

Corruption, development and governance indicators predict invasive species risk from trade.

Invasive species have an enormous global impact, with international trade being the leading pathway for their introduction. Current multinational trade deals under negotiation will dramatically change trading partnerships and pathways. These changes have considerable potential to influence biological invasions and global biodiversity. Using a database of 47 328 interceptions spanning 10 years, we demonstrate how development and governance socio-economic indicators of trading partners can predict exotic species interceptions. For import pathways associated with vegetable material, a significantly higher risk of exotic species interceptions was associated with countries that are poorly regulated, have more forest cover and have surprisingly low corruption. Corruption and indicators such as political stability or adherence to rule of law were important in vehicle or timber import pathways. These results will be of considerable value to policy makers, primarily by shifting quarantine procedures to focus on countries of high risk based on their socio-economic status. Further, using New Zealand as an example, we demonstrate how a ninefold reduction in incursions could be achieved if socio-economic indicators were used to select trade partners. International trade deals that ignore governance and development indicators may facilitate introductions and biodiversity loss. Development and governance within countries clearly have biodiversity implications beyond borders.

Global Drivers of Russian Timber Harvest

SummaryRussian forest resources are important for global carbon cycling. In contrast to traditional analyses that focus on the harvest and direct use of Russian timber resources (a.k.a. production‐based accounting), this study investigates how the consumption of nations drives Russian timber harvest (a.k.a. consumption‐based accounting or the Russian timber footprint). China is the biggest direct importer and final consumer of Russian timber. The United States, Japan, and major European countries directly import relatively small amounts of Russian timber, but serve to drive large amounts of Russian timber harvest through their final consumption. Through structural path analysis, individual supply chain paths are delineated to show linkages between Russian timber harvest and the final consumption of nations. Findings of this study inform consumption‐side measures for Russian forest conservation, for example, taking shared responsibility and improving the production efficiency of key sectors in consuming nations.

Timber yield from smallholder agroforestry systems in Nicaragua and Honduras

The importance of tropical timber is increasing worldwide. However, the timber supply of tropical forests has been greatly impacted by growing deforestation associated with complex and restrictive timber harvest laws. In Central America, as well as in other developing regions, reforestation programs have often fallen short of expectations. In these cases, agroforestry proves to be a useful strategy for providing tropical timber supplies for smallholder farmers, rural development and environmental services. Timber yields and their potential revenues in four types of agroforestry systems (silvopastoral, coffee, cocoa and living fences) were researched in Nicaragua and Honduras. The results suggest that smallholder timber production in agroforestry systems is a profitable activity despite lower market prices than commanded by timber from forests. The net value from timber sales represents 11–49 % of the total revenue from agroforestry systems. However, this amount could be 58 % higher if farmers were able to improve management practices. Encouraging the knowledge and adoption of silvicultural practices in agroforestry systems is important to increasing timber revenues among smallholder farmers in Central America.

Geographical Factors of Development of Russian Timber Industry in Market Economy

The article covers geographical and technological factors which determine localization and development of Russia’s timber processing complex in market economy environment. Dynamics of the spatial structure of the timber processing complex’s goods export in 2000–2010 is analyzed. Structure of the production of timber and pulp-and-paper goods is scrutinized for the largest Russia’s inter-regional timber industry holdings. Post-soviet shifts in geographies of timber resources and demand for them are evaluated. The synthesis of the three sets of factors lead to formulating the long-term forecast of the future spatial shifts in timber industry enterprises localization. The foci of development will be the regions adjacent to Irkutsk oblast having common border with China, the largest importer of Russian timber and pulp-and-paper goods, and combining significant timber resources with relatively dense population and infrastructure.

Wooden Os: Shakespeare’s Theatres and England’s Trees by Vin Nardizzi (review)

Vin Nardizzi. Wooden Os: Shakespeare's Theatres and England's Trees. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013. 224 pp. $42.00. Vin Nardizzi's fascinating book draws attention to a little-noted feature of early modern life: the extent to which economics, politics, and culture came together, in Shakespeare's time, in the form of a single commodity, timber. Commercial wood was, in effect, the early modern equivalent of oil in our own time: it underpinned the economy in a great variety of different ways, not just as a raw material for building and manufacturing but as a fuel to power smelting works and other forms of proto-industrial production. It was also the material that made imperial expansion possible, as whole forests were cut down to construct warships that enabled military might to be projected overseas, and, again like oil in modern era, it also prompted colonial fantasies: visions of limitless forests in the New World that could be exploited for the benefit of colonial powers. But as Nardizzi notes, timber also provided, literally, the very structure of a key and novel element of English Renaissance culture: the playhouses, those wooden os of the book's title (the phrase borrowed, of course, from the Chorus to Henry V). It was in this period that drama became commercialized, moving indoors, behind timber beams, where, doorkeeper in place, it could be monetized Nardizzi's book attends to these developments, both tracking the importance of timber to the early modern economy and also exploring the perceived crisis in the period, when available stocks of timber (and woodland resources) were thought to be insufficient to meet contemporary needs (again, the parallels with our own period are striking). All of this history is mapped out in the book in an engaging, convincing, and intelligent fashion. Moving on to the arena of theatre history, Nardizzi offers elegant arguments about the materiality of the playhouses themselves--in some measure palaces of environmental excess, as a resource thought of as being scarce was devoted to creating arenas for playing when it might have been put to better use (serving as material for the construction of another man-of-war, perhaps). But Nardizzi also notes that the playhouses served to bring the forest into the heart of the city, erecting, as he puts it, 'new woodlands' [in] the urban core, so that In London's theatres, consumers paid the price of admission to experience the pleasures and the frights of being inside virtual woods (20). …

Verified Legal? Ramifications of the EU Timber Regulation and Indonesia's Voluntary Partnership Agreement for the Legality of Indonesian Timber

The recent entry into force of the EU Timber Regulation (EUTR) completes the EU's policy framework designed to curb trade in illegal timber. In light of the imminent ratification of a Voluntary Partnership Agreement (VPA) between the EU and Indonesia, the Timber Regulation raises questions about the role that Indonesia's timber legality assurance system—the SVLK—will play in securing access for Indonesian timber to the European market. We performed a regulatory analysis and found that the SVLK will serve as the basis for licensing direct exports of timber to the EU under the VPA, but that it has weaknesses which the VPA may be unable to address. The Timber Regulation, which requires due diligence for timber imports, might have helped address these weaknesses, but it explicitly excludes VPA timber from these requirements. However, trade data indicates that the size of the timber trade that the VPA will govern is not large. Further, the Regulation will apply to Indonesian timber that enters the EU via third countries. Its ability to address gaps in the SVLK as regards this timber depends on two contingencies: (1) whether the SVLK meets the Timber Regulation's certification scheme reliability criteria; and (2) whether the due diligence provision can be construed as permitting regulators to demand proof of legality beyond certification. We argue that the EUTR will continue to play an important role in regulating imports of Indonesian timber even after the VPA is ratified.

The Christian Protest Movement, the Labour Government and Soviet Religious Repression, 1929–1931

This article examines British reactions to Stalin's deportation of over one million peasants and religious believers to the Soviet gulag. It follows events in Britain as the evidence mounted and public protests grew, first over the persecution of religious believers and then over the British government's refusal to halt imports of timber cut by camp inmates. It highlights the role played by Prebendary Alfred Gough's Christian Protest Movement and the worldwide protests against Soviet persecution which Gough's campaign inspired. It reveals how Labour ministers and other leading British Socialists obstructed the protest campaign and publicly denied accounts of crimes against humanity which they either privately admitted or, because of their enthusiasm for Soviet Communism, dismissed as right-wing fabrications.

The Risk Assessment of China\'s Timber Import Based on SWI Index

Derived by the demand of domestic economy and forest products export, timber import shows the features of high concentration and strong dependence. Thus the risk of China's timber import significantly increases. Based on SWI Index, we construct the short-term and long-term timber risk index from resource risk, country risk, market risk, transportation risk etc. Using this index, we make a more comprehensive risk assessment and find out the trend and factors of risk. The results of index construction and estimation indicate that China's timber import generally shows the trend from high risk to low risk. Besides, it also points out that the majority of new timber- importing countries are those developing countries with high country risk and high resources risk. These factors may cause considerable potential risks. Finally, the study gives policy recommendations for reducing the risk of timber import.

Non-industrial private forest owner's willingness-to-harvest: How higher timber prices influence woody biomass supply

Given the large proportion of many forested landbases comprised of non-industrial private owners, there is a great need to characterize their willingness-to-harvest (WTH) bioenergy feedstocks. A choice-based study examined non-industrial private forest landowners' WTH: timber products and woody biomass, timber products only, woody biomass only, and none. A Bayesian multinomial model analyzed the impacts of timber and woody biomass prices and other explanatory variables on WTH. Landowners' demographic profile, parcel size, attitudes toward biomass harvesting and forest ownership objectives had significant effects on stated WTH. Timber revenues had a greater marginal effect on WTH of timber and woody biomass, compared with harvesting timber only highlighting the importance of strong traditional timber markets to enhance bioenergy feedstock availability. Public policy efforts aimed at increasing woody biomass supply from NIPFs might be most effective by targeting timber rather than woody biomass revenues.

International Market Leakage from China’s Forestry Policies

Carbon leakage can be a problem when seeking to reduce carbon emissions through forest policy. International market leakage is mainly caused by supply and demand imbalances in the timber market. This paper selects China, which is implementing forestry policy changes, as the research object. We begin by offering a brief analysis of China’s forestry policy changes, such as the logging quota and Six Key Forestry Programs to determine whether those policies affect timber supply. Second, through the use of three shock variables, carbon leakage is simulated under different scenarios by the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model. The results reveal that the magnitude of leakage caused by implementing China’s forestry policies is between 79.7% and 88.8% with carbon leakage mainly displaced to Russia, Southeast Asia, and the EU. Two effective scenarios for reducing market leakage are presented: forest tenure reform and fast growing forest projects to improve domestic timber production, and raising tariffs on timber imports to reduce imports.

Changes in Chinese wood-based exports to the U.S.: Post Lacey Act amendment

The recent adoption of timber legality legislation in the U.S. (the Lacey Act 2008 amendment) requiring timber imports be sourced from legally harvested wood could have profound impacts on China's re-exports of manufactured wood products to the U.S. This study examines empirically how Chinese wood manufacturers’ sales to the U.S. have changed in response to the Lacey Act. A sample of 225 Chinese wood manufacturers was drawn from two trade shows in Shanghai, China in 2013. The results reveal that Chinese companies’ awareness of the Lacey Act has played an important role in their decision to export to the U.S. over the last five years. The companies who are less familiar with the Lacey Act tend to withdraw from the U.S. market and focus on domestic market. Also the smaller Chinese companies were more likely to withdraw from the U.S. market in the aftermath of the Lacey Act as compared to their larger counterparts. Finally, the Chinese companies that have increased their imports of raw materials from the U.S. were found to have increased their sales to the U.S. market over the last five years.

Market-oriented forestry in China promotes forestland productivity

As the world’s largest importer of timber, China’s challenge in forestry is to find a way to increase forest productivity and carbon sequestration. We argue that China’s state-owned forestry sector has low land productivities mainly because there are hidden barriers in the governmentally controlled forestry system. We suggest that a market-oriented forestry system should be applied to China’s commercial forests, and timber harvesting from commercial forests should not be restricted by a maximum allowable harvest quota or minimum rotation lengths imposed by the national government. The market-oriented forestry system will help increase forestland productivity and revert forest carbon sources into sinks for many degraded forest areas in China.

Comparison of the potential spread of pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus) inFinland andIberia simulated with a cellular automaton model

SummaryPinewood nematode (PWN) is one of the most threatening invasive pests in the pine forests ofEurope, and it has recently spread to theIberianPeninsula via import of timber and wooden packaging material fromEastAsia. A cellular automaton (CA) model was developed to simulate and compare the potential spread ofPWNby transportation and its vectors,Monochamusbeetles in the pine forests of Finland and Iberian Peninsula. The model assumes that all pines are equally sensitive toPWN. TheCAis a spatio‐temporal grid‐based model, which can easily be applied on different geographical scales. The effects of climate warming and number of entries from ports on the spread ofPWNwere studied. A sensitivity analysis was conducted on the most uncertain model parameters. Twenty years after hypothetical entries, the predicted area of symptomaticPWNinfection (pine wilt disease,PWD) was very low inFinland compared toIberia. This was because of the low probability of warmJuly inFinland. The increase in the meanJuly temperature increased the area ofPWD‐infected pine forest relatively more inFinland than inIberia. An increase in the number of entries also increased the area ofPWD‐infected pine forest relatively more in Finland than in Iberia. The probability ofPWDinfection was the highest in pine forests that were close to entry points and in areas with low elevation and high human population density.

European Union Timber Regulation: Is It Legal?

The recent entry into force of the European Union (EU) Timber Regulation completes the EU's anti‐illegal logging policy framework – the most comprehensive legislative effort to combat illegal logging in the world. The Regulation prohibits the import of timber to the European market that violates applicable laws of the harvest country, and requires that importers conduct due diligence to mitigate the risk that their inventories contain illegal timber. Despite this strong stance, the Regulation's ability to reduce the incidence of timber illegality depends on its ability to withstand challenges under international trade law. No case yet decided by the World Trade Organization's dispute bodies has considered the implications of trade restrictions built on foreign definitions of legality. An analysis of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and of relevant trade and environment cases reveals a possibility that the EU Timber Regulation may constitute an illegal trade barrier.

Timber in Scottish buildings, 1450–1800

This paper examines the dendrochronological data from Scottish buildings in terms of the proxy evidence it provides for the timber trade and condition of the woodland resource in the centuries under review. The bulk of the timber used in the construction of high status buildings during this period was either oak or pine, imported mainly from Scandinavia and the countries bordering the eastern Baltic. The documentary record for timber imports in Scotland is examined and compared with the physical evidence from the timbers themselves. The poor state of the native deciduous woodlands during this period is reflected in the dendrochronological data and explains the predominance of imported timber. While native Scottish pine has a long history of domestic use, exploitation escalated from the 17th century; there is much more pine in Scottish buildings of post-medieval date, both imported and native, and the difficulties and successes in identifying native pine in buildings is discussed. For the architectural historian and archaeologist, the relationship between the felling date of the timber and the construction of the building is critical to the interpretation of dendrochronological data. The issues which bear upon that relationship, seasoning, transportation times, stockpiling and recycling are considered in a Scottish context.