Timber Architecture Research Articles

A Popular Modernism? Timber Architecture in Britain 1936–39

Between 1936 and 1940, attention in British architectural media turned towards timber as a material for building in modern and traditional styles, stimulated by the Timber Trade Federation and its arm’s-length organisation, the Timber Development Association, and also by the desire of modern architects to try materials other than concrete. This paper describes the major events in this episode, the response of the press and the leading examples of timber buildings by leading modernists, including competition entries. It situates timber as a socially progressive material adopted by a younger generation with varied motives. This aspect of modernism was brought to an abrupt end by the shortages resulting from the Second World War, and never again achieved such prominence.

Interactive structural design of hyperbolic grid shells

Local and global design processes are equally time-phased and consider multiple goals, such as architecture, engineering and manufacturing. This paper presents a global modelling concept for hyperbolic grid shells with parametric methodologies to demonstrate alternatives to conventional structural designs composed of iterative workflows. The modelling concept provides a smooth and interactive design process for the optimisation and analysis of hyperbolic shapes. Moreover, modern timber architecture is increasingly moving towards double-curved forms, for which current timber joining methods do not offer fully adequate solutions. The design and manufacturing of multi-axial joints in spatial structures, such as space frameworks or grid shells, can greatly influence the appearance when more than two members are joined in and out of plane. In this paper, innovative grouted round timber connections have been adapted for the design of hyperbolic structures with the advantage of no requirement for concave modification of the cross-sections.

Computational analysis of hygromorphic self-shaping wood gridshell structures.

Bi-layered composites capable of self-shaping are of increasing relevance to science and engineering. They can be made out of anisotropic materials that are responsive to changes in a state variable, e.g. wood, which swells and shrinks by changes in moisture. When extensive bending is desired, such bilayers are usually designed as cross-ply structures. However, the nature of cross-ply laminates tends to prevent changes of the Gaussian curvature so that a plate-like geometry of the composite will be partly restricted from shaping. Therefore, an effective approach for maximizing bending is to keep the composite in a narrow strip configuration so that Gaussian curvature can remain constant during shaping. This represents a fundamental limitation for many applications where self-shaped double-curved structures could be beneficial, e.g. in timber architecture. In this study, we propose to achieve double-curvature by gridshell configurations of narrow self-shaping wood bilayer strips. Using numerical mechanical simulations, we investigate a parametric phase-space of shaping. Our results show that double curvature can be achieved and that the change in Gaussian curvature is dependent on the system’s geometry. Furthermore, we discuss a novel architectural application potential in the form of self-erecting timber gridshells.

Safety-state evaluation model based on structural entropy weight–matter element extension method for ancient timber architecture

This article investigates various factors that may influence the safety state of ancient timber architecture, to improve the accuracy of safety-state evaluation results for ancient timber architecture. During the process, a safety-state evaluation system for ancient timber architecture is developed. This safety-state evaluation system includes five parts: foundation, plinth, timber frame, enclosing wall, and roof. Based on the system, a safety-assessment model for ancient timber architecture based on structural entropy weight–matter element extension model is also introduced. In this model, the structural entropy weight method is applied to calculating the weight of each index and takes the influence of subjective and objective weights into consideration comprehensively. This model has the following three detailed steps. First, correlation function and correlation degree of extension set are used to quantify the relationship between the evaluation indexes of the components, joints, and evaluation interval of each safety state. Second, the safety states of units are determined according to the distribution of safety state of the components. Third, the safety degree of the entire structure is determined via the minimum safety state of units. This study also uses the Niaoqiangsanchu in Forbidden City as a study case and found that the evaluation results are consistent with the results of the practical damage survey and the actual situation of the architecture. The model thus minimizes the uncertainty of qualitative and quantitative factors in the process of evaluating the safety degree of ancient timber architecture, to finally obtain the objective evaluation results.

Vulnerability Analysis of Ancient Timber Architecture by Considering the Correlation of Different Failure Modes

The paper proposes an innovative method of analyzing the seismic fragility of ancient timber architecture. The method is based on the Copulas, in which correlation between different failure modes is considered. This method is applied to assess the vulnerability of ancient timber architecture in Ming dynasty. The assessment includes four steps. In the first step, the incremental dynamic analysis is employed to establish seismic vulnerability curves of different failure modes for the structure. After that, Copula joint distribution function is used to analyze the correlation among different failure modes. In the third step, fragility curves considering correlation among different failure modes are established. In the last step, the fragility curves are compared with those obtained by first-order bound method. The results show that seismic vulnerability of ancient timber architecture based on the Copulas is greater than that of any single failure modes. Moreover, the occurrence probability ranges between the upper and lower boundaries of the first-order bound method, but is close to the lower boundary.

The Tectonic Expression: ‘Reading’ the works of Wooi Lok Kuang

In an age of commercialism and consumerism, there has been a notable demise in the employment of a tectonic expression in the making of architecture. This is due in part to a culture of mass production to meet the rising needs of consumers, resulting in a shift in the emphasis of the value of detailing and construction as an architectural expression. Instead, there arose a preoccupation with pastiche ornamentation, reducing the significance and meaning within detailing. Furthermore, construction began to be viewed as a means to achieve spatial effect as an end. However, the need for a tectonic expression in architecture has been highlighted by Western key thinkers such as Kenneth Frampton, Vitorrio Gregotti and Marco Frascari, who have stated that tectonic can be employed as a resolution to the degeneration of culture as a result of homogeneity of architecture. This is because tectonic involves the poetic amplification of construction knowledge which stems from culture and craftsmanship, and an appropriate application of tectonic in construction can lead to the construal of meaningful architecture. In Asia (Malaysia), there is limited study on the meaning of craft that stems from the richness of local cultures in relation to tectonics. By adopting a mixed-methodology of case study and interview, this paper studies works of Wooi Lok Kuang, a seminal Malaysian architect published for his folio of timber architecture, namely, Wooi Residence (2004), Ting Residence (2010) and House 9 (2015). It situates Wooi’s design methodology of assembly of ‘joints’ in an Asian/Malaysian context within the larger body of knowledge regarding tectonics as found in the western literature and argues that Wooi’s design methodology that is rich in cultural and contextual influences expounds on Frascari’s framework of ‘joints’, including key factors that are specific to Wooi’s architecture and the Malaysian context.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON LATERAL PERFORMANCE OF SHEAR WALL OF MODERN TIMBER ARCHITECTURE COMBINED WITH BRACE AND PLASTER USING WOOD LATH

In this study, in-plane shear tests of the seismic shear walls of modern timber architecture combined with brace and plaster using wood lath were conducted, and the failure mode, deformation performance and strength properties were discussed. The specimens are shown in Fig. 1 and Table1. Two types of the steel plate are used for the joints of the brace (see Fig. 2 and Fig. 3). Specimen1 is the wall using the only brace with the joint steel plate as shown in the existing architecture. Specimen2 is the wall using the only brace with the reinforced steel plate in joint. Specimen3 is the only plaster wall using wood lath. Specimen4 is the wall combined with brace (existing joint steel plate) and plaster using wood lath. Specimen5 is the wall combined with brace (reinforced steel plate) and plaster using wood lath. The results obtained from this study are summarized as follows. In the Specimen1, the joint steel plates were rotated in the early drift angle (see Photo3), and axial force were not acted on the tensile brace. At the drift angle of 1/30rad, the beam was broken (see Photo4) by bending moment because the compressive brace pushed up the beam. In the Specimen2, the strength properties were dramatically improved (see Fig. 8) because of the reinforced steel plate in joint. However, the bending fracture of the beam, which is the same as shown in Specimen1, occurred at the drift angle of 1/50rad. In the Specimen3, many cracks occurred at the corner of the plaster because of compressive stress (see Fig. 11). The strength of the plaster was the highest at the drift angle of 1/100rad, and the load decreased rapidly after that of 1/100rad. However, the load increased again after that of 1/50rad because wood lath was contacted with columns (see Fig. 10). In the Specimen4, the diagonal crack in the central area of plaster occurred in first, and then the crack at the corner of the plaster occurred (see Fig. 13). However, the number of the cracks at the drift angle of 1/100rad was lower than that of Specimen3. In the Specimen5, the cracks at the corner of the plaster occurred at the drift angle of 1/75rad (see Fig. 15). It is considered that the compressive stress will decrease by increasing the stiffness of the brace. The strength of the walls combined with brace and plaster shows good agreement with the sum of each strength of brace and plaster using wood lath.

Wood used in ancient timber architecture in Shanxi Province, China

We examined fifty main structural components from fifteen historical wood buildings located in the northern, central, southern and south-eastern regions of Shanxi Province, China and dating from the Tang to the Qing Dynasty. Eleven timber-tree genera were identified: Cupressus, Larix, Malus, Picea, Pinus subg. Diploxylon, Populus, Quercus, Sophora, Sorbus, Ulmus and Zizyphus. Furthermore, wood specimens of Larix and Pinus subg. Diploxylon were determined to species level, viz. Larix gmelinii var. principis-rupprechtii and Pinus tabuliformis, according to their original geographical distribution in this region. Natural distribution of the wood species was apparently the leading criterion for timber selection since most identified genera are native to the areas surrounding the buildings investigated.

Conflict and Compromise in multi-storey timber architecture

From the Stone Age to the Silicon Age, humanity’s relationship with materials has framed our scientific and cultural evolution. Despite recent scientific advances that open the laboratory doors to a future of material experimentation, the building industry remains stuck in the Concrete Age. The next material age is likely to be a Timber Age, as engineered timber finally comes into its own as a structural material suitable for multi-storey buildings.The research and design methodology of our practice can be summarised as an essay in conflict and compromise; a continual infliction of self-imposed constraints that allows us to discover hitherto unimaginable paths through the available options. We achieve this by searching through a space of possibilities demarcated by the properties and performative logic of the material at hand. First, we create an abundant field of alternatives, then we often use evolutionary computations to find our way through this field towards a visionary and original design.All design involves conflicting objectives. The best schemes offer the best compromise between desires. This article discusses how evolutionary solvers can be used as a tool for material-based architectural optimisation of geometries and structures, and how we have used them in designs for the imminent Timber Age. As one potentially conflicting objective is weighed against another, we move closer and closer to a tradeoff: the fitness of cooperating, opposing or unconnected variables.A population of possible design responses is visualised as a ‘fitness landscape’. Inspired by the role of natural selection in biological evolution, we use evolutionary algorithms to perform a selection process in which the ‘most fit’ members of such a population survive, while the ‘least fit’ members are eliminated, with the selection process guiding the algorithm towards ever-better solutions. The resulting timber structures would have made Darwin proud.

A Study of the Three Buddhist Copper Hall Projects, 1602–1607

The copper hall was a special type of building in Chinese architectural history. It imitates traditional Chinese timber architecture in terms of structure, but with all its components cast out of copper alloys and then assembled. During the Wanli reign of the Ming dynasty, three such Buddhist copper halls were constructed from 1602 to 1607, and set up at Emei Mountain, Baohua Mountain, and Wutai Mountain. The present article makes several points. First, the three copper halls were from the same design, as determined through historical texts and on-site investigation. In conception, they may have been inspired by Taoist copper halls, but did not follow those particular designs. Furthermore, the author has created a statistical database of all the inscriptions from Wutai Copper Hall and loaded the data into the GIS platform, which was keyed to a historical map of 1582. The data suggest that the patrons of Wutai Copper Hall lived in areas along the Grand Canal, the Sanggan River, and the Fen River; and that the patrons were numerous. The Chan Master Miaofeng was not only an organizer but also an experienced project manager who preferred brick, stone and metal to timber. Under his organizing and management, people from different social classes and communities willingly contributed. Finally, this paper contextualizes the Buddhist building projects of the late Wanli period. The inscriptions in Wutai Copper Hall reliably record a vivid landscape of Ming society. The donation initiated by Miaofeng was not merely a personal action but also an influential event the effect of which lasted for years. The numerous patrons were organized not by the power afforded by any state representative, but by networks of monks, nuns, merchants, local religious communities, and pilgrim associations. Copper halls, especially Wutai Copper Hall, are excellent evidence for how religious monumental projects were organized, managed, and implemented in late Ming society.

‘Heroa’ and the city. Kuprlli’s new architecture and the making of the ‘Lycian acropolis’ of Xanthus in the early Classical period

AbstractThis paper considers the architectural design of a group of three buildings erected on what is commonly called the ‘acropolis’ of Xanthus in Lycia in the second quarter of the fifth century BC – a time of increasing social, political and economic complexity in this corner of the Aegean/eastern Mediterranean. Although, as the first examples of stone imitations of timber architecture, these buildings are often mentioned in discussions about the origins of Lycian ‘house tombs’ and sometimes summarily discussed in terms of their function, the architectural phenomenon that these buildings represent has not received extensive consideration. Here it is argued that their genesis can be located in the building of a monumentalised skyline, potentially drawing on other cities’ acropoleis as models. In addition to this, the buildings also represent quite new commemorative practices. It is proposed that these three innovative structures could be related to a broader practice of erecting monuments to honour city founders in prominent public spaces. In this way, both the terms ‘acropolis’ and ‘heroa’ – loaded terms usually only loosely applied in the literature on these monuments – may be useful for capturing the peculiar qualities of the architectural projects that transformed Kuprlli’s Xanthus.

Evolution and Composition of the Traditional Timber Structure Column Bases in the Southern Region of China - A Case Study of Shaoxing City

As a very unique structural component of traditional timber architecture, column base is a natural combination of stone carving technology and timber structure system, from which we can understand the broad and profound traditional architectural culture. In This paper, the emergence and evolution of the column bases art history was firstly described to analyze the factors that promote the development and changes of column bases. Moreover, Finally, the dimension of column bases was introduced. The results of this paper can be taken as the reference for the development of the antique buildings and the new Chinese architecture.

An Overview of the Historical and Technical Evolution of Azerbaijan Timber Architecture

This paper investigates construction systems of historical buildings in Azerbaijan-Iran by comparing and classifying their architectural elements in detail. Mithrava Mosque in Binab-city and Forty-Column Palace in Qazvin-city are presented as case studies that illustrate Azerbaijan timber architectural traits according to its style. The plans, sections and other technical data have been presented for evaluation of Azerbaijan timber constructions as an architectural style according to their special factors. The plans and all details of exemplary figures are presented based on field survey after controlling all the mentioned plans that are documented in heritage and cultural organization of eastern Azerbaijan in I.R Iran. There is a historical review of Azerbaijan timber architecture extending to 3000 years ago, covering Urartian, Maday and Safavid dynasties before attending to the technical details of construction methods in this paper. Then, important construction elements are analyzed in detail by their plans and sections that are documented on field survey.

Earthquake Response Monitoring and Structural Analysis of Traditional Japanese Timber Temple

This paper introduces the recent attempts to clarify the seismic behavior of traditional timber architecture. The subject of the research is a timber temple, Kencho-ji, in Japan, designated as important cultural property. The temple was affected by the Great Kanto Earthquake 1923. There are two main halls in the Kencho-ji temple, and one of them collapsed while the other slightly inclined. The two main halls have similar structures, and stand next to each other. The authors have been trying to clarify the reason for the difference in the damage for the past ten years through on-sight measurement, micro tremor test, earthquake monitoring and structural analysis. As there is very few information concerning the hidden detail of the joints, recently the authors have operated X-ray inspection. The paper introduces the result of the X-ray test and the structural analysis using the result of the newly revealed hidden joint is discussed.

Timber and Chinese Architecture

Timber, a traditional construction material that was almost forgotten. Timber structure building got a qualitative leap in structure form, mechanized producing craftmanship and matching products, along with social progress and technology improvement. This paper will summarize modern timber structure forms by comparison with popular constructional material, like concrete and steel, in five aspects including life-cycle energy consumption, structure form, construction cost, construction period, seismic performance. Timber's advantages and disadvantages in architectural design will be listed, which may provide theoretical basis for diversified choice of construction materials in architectural design.

Neolithic settlement at the woodland's edge: palynological data and timber architecture in Orkney, Scotland

It has often been assumed that the islands of Orkney were essentially treeless throughout much of the Holocene, with any ‘scrub’ woodland having been destroyed by Neolithic farming communities by around 3500 cal. BC. This apparently open, hyper-oceanic environment would presumably have provided quite marginal conditions for human settlement, yet Neolithic communities flourished and the islands contain some of the most spectacular remains of this period in north-west Europe. The study of new Orcadian pollen sequences, in conjunction with the synthesis of existing data, indicates that the timing of woodland decline was not synchronous across the archipelago, beginning in the Mesolithic, and that in some areas woodland persisted into the Bronze Age. There is also evidence to suggest that woodland communities in Orkney were more diverse, and therefore that a wider range of resources was available to Neolithic people, than has previously been assumed. Recent archaeological investigations have revealed evidence for timber buildings at early Neolithic settlement sites, suggesting that the predominance of stone architecture in Neolithic Orkney may not have been due to a lack of timber as has been supposed. Rather than simply reflecting adaptation to resource constraints, the reasons behind the shift from timber to stone construction are more complex and encompass social, cultural and environmental factors.

Excavations at a Multi-period Site at Greenbogs, Aberdeenshire, Scotland and the Four-post Timber Architecture Tradition of Late Neolithic Britain and Ireland

This report outlines the unexpected discovery of a group of Late Neolithic structures at Greenbogs, Monymusk in Aberdeenshire, along with a series of later prehistoric features in the mid-1990s. Recent radiocarbon dating shows that two four-post timber structures found here date to the period 2890–2490 calbc. These were found in association with a range of other features including an oval structure and diffuse areas of burning. The closest parallels for the four-post structures can be found in a slowly growing body of Late Neolithic timber structures, some being interpreted as roofed dwellings and others as roofed or unroofed monuments. This article places the Greenbogs structures in their wider context, identifies a number of unexcavated parallels in the aerial record and addresses the nature of the four-post structures found across Late Neolithic Britain and Ireland and suggests that four-post structures were a more common element of Late Neolithic architecture than previously identified. A common building type appears to have been shared across large areas of Britain and Ireland in a variety of contexts, from the seemingly mundane to the more ‘charged’, as part of elaborate monument complexes. The later prehistoric features identified at Greenbogs include a concentration of Middle Bronze Age features including graves containing cremated human bones, one with an upright urn, and a number of Iron Age pits and other features.

Features of Application of Modern Wooden Structure into Reconstruction in Wenchuan-Earthquake Region

The 8-magnitude earthquake stuck the Wenchuan region of Sichuan Province on May 12, 2008. It resulted in heavy collapses and damage of buildings, then caused a great deal of injuries and loses in life and wealth. In the post-disaster reconstruction, several new structure systems with good seismic-resistant performance, especially modern timber structure, were adopted and promoted by local government. Its features of light weight, rapid construction, high strength and energy saving, can be shown in a serial of experiment reconstruction such as school building, nursing home for elderly, rural housing and so on. The application of modern timber architecture in Wenchuan region shows some new trends in China: Sharp increase in amount and scale, complete variety of modern wooden structure in use, covering urban architecture and rural buildings, cost control in construction and low-cost wooden housing, training in local builders and improvement of local wood industry, lastly, and flourishing subsequent study on wooden architecture and structure. It can be taken as the important milestone in development of modern timber architecture in China.

Experimental and numerical investigations on full-scale adhesively bonded timber trusses

Timber architecture, taking advantage of modern production techniques, is increasingly moving towards free forms; however, traditional joining techniques are not yet adapted to echo the new expression at the level of the details. This paper reports on adhesively bonded joints as a way to help architects fully unleash their creative potential. For this purpose, experimental and numerical investigations on full-scale adhesively bonded timber trusses were performed, in which adhesive bonds were compared to traditional doweled connections. The adhesively bonded trusses achieved significantly higher failure load and stiffness. Tests on small clear specimens were conducted to determine input parameters for finite element analyses. The sole timber connection was characterised, giving valuable insights into the mechanical behaviour of this truss component. At this end, the influence of the embedded length of the applied sleet plates was experimentally determined, delivering data to benchmark the subsequent dimensioning method. The trusses were then modeled and excellent agreement was found between numerical and experimental results. Finally, a dimensioning method, based on a realistic multi-axial failure criterion coupled with size effects was implemented and yielded very good agreement when with experimental results. The reported investigation demonstrates the high potential of adhesive bonding in timber structures.

The Conceptual Design Changes Triggered by Timber Boards

After the introduction of timber boards as diaphragms in light-frame construction opened the way to modern timber construction, three major design changes would follow: the elements become multifunctional, they can work structurally in two directions, and they can be prefabricated as surface components in a non modular way. In other words, the multifunctional panel becomes the design unit of modern timber architecture. This work looks at various types of composite timber panels with a view to show the evidence of typological and tectonic changes caused by the new design unit.