Timber Architecture Research Articles

Maintenance Approaches Using 3D Scanning Point Cloud Visualization, and BIM+ Data Management: A Case Study of Dahei Mountain Buildings

This study investigates the utilization of 3D laser scanning, GPS, BIM and GIS technologies for safeguarding historical wooden structures. As a case study, it focuses on two historic Chinese wooden buildings, the Guanyin Pavilion and Tangwang Palace, renowned for their exceptional historical significance and intricate timber architecture. The Guanyin Pavilion was subjected to high-precision modeling and tilt monitoring, which found that certain columns had a maximum tilt angle of 0.7892°. Additionally, a general tilt tendency was seen across various structural elements. The measurements from the point cloud data exhibited an error range of ±10 mm. However, the relative errors in smaller components approached 2.5%, which necessitated regular verification through human measurements. Using GIS and BIM technology in Tangwang Palace facilitated the meticulous documentation and dynamic supervision of architectural components, encompassing historical development and present state. The maintenance records revealed persistent problems with the roof tiles and wooden beams, exposing structural vulnerabilities. During various maintenance intervals, it was observed that the roof tiles were frequently loose and separated, indicating potential flaws in the design or materials used. The application of these modern technologies enhances the effectiveness and precision of conservation efforts and provides a robust scientific foundation for the continuous monitoring and study of cultural heritage.

Architecture and local resources: project experiences in Vorarlberg

The Land of Vorarlberg is Austria’s second smallest but most densely populated province after Vienna. Known for its innovative timber architecture, Vorarlberg’s approach integrates ecological, economic, functional, and aesthetic considerations, as championed by Wolfgang Ritsch of the Vorarlberger Architektur Institut (VAI). The region’s timber industry has faced challenges, including local provincialism and modernist material preferences, but gained prominence in the 1990s with the establishment of the Baukünstler group and the Vorarlberger Bauschule, recognised for their contributions to timber construction. Key to this development is Vorarlberg’s significant woodland, covering one-third of its area, and its commitment to sustainable forest management. Regional timber architecture aligns with the principles of appropriate technology, emphasizing eco-responsible, community-driven innovations. Vorarlberg’s timber architecture exemplifies a collaborative effort between designers and craftsmen, focusing on the use of local resources and high construction quality. The essay represents the introduction of notable projects including multifunctional public buildings, schools, offices, and residential complexes, reflecting the region’s commitment to sustainable development and architectural excellence. This ongoing innovation in wood-integrated solutions reinforces Vorarlberg as a hub for eco-friendly and culturally resonant architectural practices.

Was kennzeichnet einen Holzbau?

The new online encyclopaedia www.holzbaukultur.ch from the Bern University of Applied Sciences presents Swiss timber buildings across six centuries and shows lineages of development. The wide range of examples initiates a debate about the characteristics of timber buildings. Switzerland is generally associated with craftsmanship and traditional timber buildings in the Alpine region. The attempt to develop timber architecture in the spirit of modernism in the 20th century was not very successful. The proportion of timber in total building volume decreased significantly. In recent decades, Swiss timber construction, which is now highly technologised, has repositioned itself, and architecture and structural planning have come closer together and realised remarkable, pioneering projects. Timber construction is now the subject of urban spaces and must find new forms accordingly. The approaches to these new forms have so far been very different. Answering the question “What characterises timber construction?” therefore appears to be a key to the visibility and success of a forward-looking Swiss timber construction culture.

Improvement effects of knee-bracing friction dampers on cyclic behavior of steel joints in antique buildings

To inherit the unique characteristics of historical timber architecture, the steel antique building (SAB) imitating ancient Chinese timber structures has been constructed using contemporary steel materials and fabrication techniques. These buildings typically exhibit premature yielding cracks and weak energy dissipation at the beam ends under seismic loads. To improve the seismic performance of SABs, two different types of friction dampers were deployed at the knee-bracing region around beam-column joints in SABs. First, cyclic loading tests on dampers indicate that both shear friction dampers and rotational friction dampers exhibit full hysteretic behavior, demonstrating an excellent and stable energy dissipation capacity. The friction coefficient of dampers with brass pads was theoretically calculated to be 0.35. Second, the quasi-static test showed that failure of steel joint specimens with knee-bracing dampers primarily occurred at replaceable angles in the beam-column connection region, which demonstrates that the repairability of steel joints in SABs can be greatly improved without overcomplicated labor. Adding knee-bracing dampers effectively postpones damage to the replaceable angles, which improves the strength, stiffness, and energy dissipation capacity of the steel joints significantly. The shear damper exhibits a more pronounced improvement in the overall structural seismic performance compared to the rotational damper with the same frictional sliding force. Moreover, numerical simulations showed that the strength of the proposed joints with knee-bracing friction dampers decreases with an increase in the axial compression ratio, while increasing the thickness of angles or the sliding force of dampers can effectively improve the seismic performance of the steel joints in SABs.

Resilient joints with SMA bar-shear friction damper (SSFD) device in steel modern Chinese traditional-style buildings: Seismic performance evaluation and optimized design

To inherit and protect ancient Chinese architectural culture, modern building materials and techniques have been combined in the modern Chinese traditional-style building (MCTB) with similar exterior forms to ancient Chinese timber architecture. However, the typical joint in MCTB exhibits weak energy dissipation capacity and significant residual deformation under seismic actions, resulting in a problematic post-earthquake repair behavior. A semi-rigid friction-damped joint with resilient function has been proposed to improve the seismic performance and recoverability of MCTBs. Low-cyclic loading was conducted on four specimens of full scale. The results indicated that the yielding failure of four specimens primarily occurred in the vulnerable regions designed with replaceable angles. Compared with semi-rigid joints, the yield displacement, overall strength, initial stiffness, and cumulative energy dissipation of the specimen with the shape memory alloy (SMA) bar-shear friction damper device was significantly increased, and the residual deformation was significantly reduced, indicating that the device has a significant enhancement effect on the seismic and repairable performance of the structure. Based on the experimental results, a three-dimensional model was established using ABAQUS finite element software to optimize the design of joints and determine the optimal structural system that meets the requirements of MCTB.

The response of different-aged saplings to light gradients reveals new insights into the light requirements of an endangered woody plant species, Phoebe chekiangensis

Abstract Phoebe chekiangensis is endemic to China and highly valued for art ware, furniture, and timber architecture, having a special status in Chinese history. Natural sources of P. chekiangensis are being depleted, and the species was listed as ‘VULNERABLE’ on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 1998 (https://www.iucnredlist.org/) due to excessive anthropogenic deforestation and the plant’s weak self-regeneration ability. Most studies have attempted to elucidate this weak natural regeneration by culturing seedlings and community surveys, ignoring the different light requirements of seedlings at distinct ages. In this study, we examined five consecutive age groups of seedlings/saplings with current-year (seedling) and 1–4-year-olds exposed to four shading treatments (100%, 40%, 15%, and 5% of full sunlight) for 2 years, based on a randomized complete block design. Using analysis of variance and Duncan’s multiple comparison, the growth rate, photosynthetic response, photosynthetic pigments, and ultrastructure of chloroplasts were evaluated among the shading treatments. The results show that the light requirements of P. chekiangensis change during the development process. Moderate shading (40% of full sunlight) is beneficial for the early development of Phoebe seedlings, increasing height growth, photosynthetic efficiency, and photosynthetic pigment content and protecting the development of chloroplast structures. However, full exposure to sunlight is necessary for growing saplings (more than 2 years old) to meet the increased energy demands for growth and development. Overall, this study elucidates P. chekiangensis light utilization during the early regeneration phase, informing seedling cultivation activities and the development of silvicultural strategies of this endangered species.

Self-adaptive Modelling Method for Chinese Ancient Timber Architecture Based on Digital Structure Metamodel

Self-adaptive Modelling Method for Chinese Ancient Timber Architecture Based on Digital Structure Metamodel

Structural Performance and Nesting Efficiency of segmented, point-supported, slabs for co-designed timber architecture

Climate change requires the economical use of all raw materials, including renewable construction materials such as timber. The aim of this study is to understand the interdependencies between structural and nesting performance to define the segmentation method that uses the least raw material. To do this, six segmentation methods are compared for 16 floor plans. Based on these simulations the amount of raw material needed per project is estimated for two timber building systems: one solid and the other hollow. Two of the developed segmentation methods are competitive with the commonly used regular segmentation method in terms of their raw material use. The overall performance however is dependent on the column layout, the boundary shape of the floor plan, and the chosen building system.

Aspergillus niger infection weakens the robustness of bamboo-adhesive interphases by damaging the adhesive and detaching the interfacial bonding

Engineered bamboo products (EBPs) are promising in timber architecture due to their robustness, environmental sustainability, and light-weightiness advantages. The mechanical stability of EBPs facing mold infection deserves more attention considering limited insights beyond the current investigation into the mold resistance of raw bamboo and simple bamboo crafts. Here, we demonstrated that a 20-day Aspergillus niger (A. niger ) infection significantly weakens the shearing strength of bamboo-phenol formaldehyde (PF) adhesive bonds (>70 %); in one of the cases, the shearing strength of outer-to-inner assembled bamboo-PF bonds reduced from 11.9 MPa (uninfected) to 2.6 MPa after 20-day A. niger infection. Apparent cracks in PF adhesive, along with the noticeable biodegradation and oxidation of the aromatic skeleton, were observed after a 20-day A. niger infection. The detached interfacial bonding and weakened mechanical performance of bamboo cell walls after a 20-day infection were also revealed, provoking the significant strain concentration of bamboo-PF interphase. A plausible mechanism for the A. niger infection weakening the robustness of the bamboo-PF interphase can be concluded as the cracked PF adhesive, detached bamboo-PF interphase, and crippled bamboo cell walls. The three-fold mechanical damage caused by A. niger infection makes bamboo-PF interphase fragile and stress-concentrated when subjected to load.

Optimal placement method of multi-objective and multi-type sensors for courtyard-style timber historical buildings based on Meta-genetic algorithm

Optimal sensor placement for timber architecture heritage poses a significant challenge due to the unique structural types and complex monitoring purposes. In this study, a three-stage method is proposed, taking a courtyard-style heritage, built 133 years ago, as an example. First, a finite element model that accounted for the parameter randomness and initial damage was constructed using a genetic algorithm (GA) and experimental results. Second, a new weighted fitness function of logarithmic type was developed for multi-type sensors and multi-objective monitoring. Third, a novel genetic algorithm, Meta-GA, was proposed, introducing competition group mechanisms and gene libraries to improve optimal capability while maintaining computational efficiency. The Meta-GA is then compared to the other two optimization modes using seven indexes. Finally, damage detection capability was tested for the proposed three schemes at noise levels of 0%, 5%, and 10%. The results reveal that the proposed three-stage method with Meta-GA can provide the best solution.

Seismic performance of steel semi-rigid friction-damped joints with replaceable angles in modern Chinese traditional-style buildings

As an important part of world-class architectural art, Chinese ancient timber architecture has a very high level of artistry and technology. However, these buildings have been seriously damaged in the long history. To inherit and reflect the national characteristics and regional culture, the modern Chinese traditional-style building (MCTB) is newly developed to imitate the appearance of Chinese ancient timber architecture. The base metal of the typical joint area in MCTBs is always fractured under earthquakes because of its rigid characteristics, which is difficult to repair once damaged. To prevent joint failure and improve reparability after earthquakes, steel semi-rigid friction-damped joints with replaceable angles in MCTBs are proposed. Four specimens were fabricated and tested under lateral cyclic loading. The test results showed that the failure of all specimens is mainly concentrated in the weak region of the replaceable angles. Compared with simple semi-rigid joints, the yield displacements of specimens with friction dampers (including shear damper and rotational damper) are obviously larger, and the strength, initial stiffness, cumulative energy dissipation and replaceable capacity are significantly improved. The improvement is more pronounced with the increase of the slip force of the dampers. Based on experimental results, the corresponding numerical models were established to optimize the structural design of steel semi-rigid friction-damped joints with replaceable angles in modern Chinese traditional-style buildings.

Computational Segmentation Methods for the Material Efficient Co-Design of Point-Supported, Grid-Independent Floor Slabs in Timber Architecture

Computational Segmentation Methods for the Material Efficient Co-Design of Point-Supported, Grid-Independent Floor Slabs in Timber Architecture

Using sustainable timber in architecture in Vietnam

Sustainable architecture trends influence the choice of materials both indoors and outdoors, making timber a strongly preferred material. Increasing numbers of architects, developers, governments, educational institutions and corporations are embracing wood, since timber replace other construction materials in many structures while providing the same functionality. The combination of a rising concern about global warming and sustainability; a growing desire to preserve traditional Vietnamese culture; recent scientific and technological advances which have made wood an even more versatile building resource; and an international push for increased use of timber in construction, makes Vietnam’s timber architecture perfectly placed for expansion. The article presents findings on why using timber is good for environment and the use of timber in design as well as timber revolution in construction and architecture in Vietnam. By applying new technology and methods, and through using sustainably-sourced plantation wood, there is huge potential for the revival of wooden architecture in Vietnam. This would have significant environmental and economic advantages for the country and most importantly, create opportunities to continue the long-standing tradition of using wood for thousands of years in the construction and architectural works, from traditional houses to public buildings for community in Vietnam.

An Experimental Study of the Hysteresis Model of the Kanchuang Frame Used in Chinese Traditional Timber Buildings of the Qing Dynasty

Kanchuang frames are important parts of traditional timber architecture in China. This paper used experimental and numerical methods to study the restoring force model of Kanchuang frames, which were used frequently in Chinese ancient timber structures, particularly in North China. The prototyped test model is a type of Chinese traditional timber architecture named Qilinyingshan. It was widely used in ancient timber buildings preserved from the Ming and Qing dynasties. This study analyzed the loading process and failure modes of the test model, and the skeleton curve and hysteretic curve data were collected. Moreover, a dimensionless skeleton curve model was developed based upon the findings. The hysteresis loops of the test model were also analyzed, and it was found that each hysteresis loop can be divided into several feature segments according to their stiffness at different loading stages. Regression analysis was also used to obtain the stiffness degradation curvilinear equations of the feature segments. Finally, a hysteresis force model of a Kanchuang frame was established. This study also found that the loading process can be divided into three stages: the elastic stage, in which all of the components are in good condition; the elastic–plastic stage, in which cracks gradually develop on the wall; and the new elastic–plastic stage, after which the wall collapses. It was found there was consistency between the restoring force model and the test results, indicating that the model is valid and reliable. The skeleton curve model and hysteretic model provide reference for the nonlinear seismic response of ancient timber architecture.

Reconfigurable Modular System of Prefabricated Timber Grids

To coordinate the old wisdom of modular systems and the emerging paradigm of Industry 4.0, the latest digital discretism has worked on combinatorial assembly for open-ended field conditions. Considering oriented to small-scale semipermanent timber buildings, this paper introduces a reconfigurable modular timber grid inspired by the traditional East Asian timber architecture. The system only requires minimum cuts on a dimensional timber to produce serialized components. As a result, the timber components dismantled from previous buildings can be easily reprocessed for other structures of different configurations. This recycling scheme facilitates serial manufacturing and reduces resource consumptions. Such a reconfigurable system relies on the grid geometry and the local topology of connections. The formalism of Bravais lattice from crystallography facilitates the analysis of the symmetry in various regular grids. Our prototype of the timber grid is self-standing (without connections to the ground) and creates a large overhang. A finite element method is developed to evaluate the structural performance of timber structures with semirigid joints on the basis of the direct stiffness method. Traditional East Asian architecture uses the interlocking mechanism for wood connections, whereas our system uses shallow-notched joints on the wood. A robotic milling system is adopted to prefabricate the wood components. The shallow notches are modeled as Boolean operations between a pair of cuboid components, which greatly simplifies the toolpath planning of the robotic system. System design, serial production of components, assembly, and recycling are integrated within a consistent and open system. • The reconfigurable timber grid optimizes material supply and energy consumption. • Bravais lattice from crystallography reveals the symmetry in regular timber grids. • Timber components from previous buildings can be easily reprocessed for reuse. • Finite element method models the semirigid connections in timber grid. • Robotic milling system is adopted to prefabricate the wood components.

Dilemma in the Development of Modern Timber Architecture and Its Countermeasures

Under the context that “peak carbon emissions” and “carbon neutrality” are included in the overall plan for the construction of ecological civilization in China, this paper discusses the value of modern timber architecture as a form of low-carbon and environmental protection movement in the whole life cycle of the construction field. It mainly analyzes the reasons for the limited resources, misunderstandings of inherent concepts, the high cost of comprehensive construction, and the shortage of professionals. Based on that, several countermeasures have been proposed, such as perfecting relevant norms and policies, strengthening technology research and development as well as demonstration guidance, moderately developing forest resources, applying digital construction operation and maintenance technology, as well as cultivating compound professionals, all of which provide a reference for the development of ecological benefits in China’s construction industry.

Research on seismic performance of traditional Chinese hall-style timber buildings in the Song and Yuan dynasties (960\u20131368 AD): a case study of the main hall of Baoguo Temple

The hall-style timber frame built in the Song and Yuan dynasties (960–1368 AD) is one of the most important structural prototypes of the traditional timber architecture in East Asia. The current research, through a typical case of the main hall of Baoguo Temple in Ningbo, China, aims to present an accurate and effective seismic performance evaluation method applicable to hall-style timber structures without time–cost expenditure. To obtain more realistic seismic response of hall-style timber frame, a simplified numerical model of the main hall of Baoguo Temple is established based on in situ measurements and low-cycle reversed loading tests results of mortise–tenon joints, moreover, nonlinear static pushover analysis has been performed to quantify the seismic performance levels under five loading conditions. The generalized force–deformation relationship of the timber plastic hinges is modified regarding to the moment–rotation curves of four special mortise–tenon joints. The seismic behaviour of global hall-style timber frame is evaluated through capacity spectrum method and verified by time history analysis, local failure mechanisms are evaluated by the occurrence sequence of plastic hinges. Finally, a performance-based assessment method adequate for the traditional hall-style timber architectures has been proposed with comparison to the current codes. The results have shown that the structural stiffness of the width-direction is less than that of the depth direction due to the asymmetrical configuration of the timber frame, and the building can maintain a stable state under large lateral displacement before collapsing. The inter-storey drift angles of the building under peak ground accelerations of 0.1 g, 0.2 g, and 0.3 g are less than the suggested ultimate values in the current local codes, however, the main hall represents to be more vulnerable to damage when suffer seismic action along the width-direction. This research can provide a reference for seismic performance evaluation and preventive conservation of ancient hall-style timber architectural heritage.

Nyika-ház : Adalék a kortárs erdélyi építészet vorarlbergi fordulatához

Remembering childhood experiences of village life and experimenting in DIY helped guide the way towards developing this home extension in Transylvania. Restoration of a traditional home helps to reinforce the idea of local identity, without restricting a well-informed experiment in creating contemporary architectural forms. The new extension making a move forward in terms of timber architecture rooted in local culture.

A Participatory Approach on Saving Vernacular Timber Heritage: A Case Study on Relocating a Wooden Church in Romania

This paper presents a case study on participatory and collaborative traditional design-build architecture in Romania. The focus is set on dismantling, relocating, rebuilding and reusing a 19th century wooden church with the efforts of the adopting community. In Romania, wood is used as a traditional building material, largely for roof framing elements in urban areas and in most mountainous rural areas for the construction of houses and churches. Due to an ongoing demographic rural-urban migration and emigration many villages have, and are being depopulated, subsequently abandoned and many such structures left behind. Under these circumstances, the possibility of dismantling, relocating and reusing these types of structures has become economically viable in comparison to new-built structures. The design for disassembly, inherent to vernacular timber architecture and how the deconstruction and reuse of timber elements maintain their value through efficient reuse makes it a suitable work frame for a participatory based approach involving communities with basic construction skill levels. Thus strengthening communities, maintaining and developing local identity through heritage and crafts. This type of action shows an increasing potential for saving timber vernacular structures by activating local communities and responding to their needs, in a time where the concern for natural resource management and re-cycling or up-cycling is becoming ever more important. The aim of the project is to increase awareness regarding timber built heritage by formulating a successful example of a participatory design- build project. A desired goal is to shift the architectural discourse by coalescing it with wider views of democracy and alternative visions of a sustainable future.

Timber Architecture in a Fire-Prone City: Building a Fire Regime in Valparaíso, Chile 1838–1906

This article analyses the history of timber architecture in Valparaíso, viewed through the lens of the city’s flammability. It uses the concept of fire regime to examine how considerations of fire risk have shaped urban development between 1838 and 1906. The research aims to show that Valparaíso’s frequent fires, along with its preference for timber construction in the nineteenth century, fed social tensions affecting local traditions and contributing to the creation of a complex notion of fire regime and fire risk. Sources include official documents from the municipal, regional, and national governments, press, and the records of private firefighting companies. The research focuses on three main elements of Valparaíso’s fire regime. First, it demonstrates that fires gradually became viewed as a human and social problem in the city. Secondly, it illustrates how this transition directly affected the production of a local architecture. And finally, it reveals the paradox of Valparaíso’s vernacular timber architecture as based on an imported material.