Tilting-pad Bearings Research Articles

Three-body abrasive wear by (silica) sand of advanced polymeric coatings for tilting pad bearings

Aromatic Thermosetting Polyester (ATSP)-based coatings exhibit extremely low wear rates (4.15×10-8mm3/Nm) under boundary lubrication simulating tilting pad bearings in harsh conditions. It is acknowledged that coatings’ resistance to abrasive particles encountered in the bearing is also critical; the abrasive wear resistance of ATSP-based coatings and polyether ether ketone(PEEK)-based coatings are studied in this work using an accelerated wear experimental configuration with submerged lubrication and 2% weight of silica sand. The coatings’ performance is compared with bare substrate (C182000 chromium copper) material. The results demonstrate that ATSP-based coatings have good abrasive wear resistance and very stable coefficient of friction (COF) because of their elastic deformation and a black tribo-layer that forms on the surface. ATSP-based coatings exhibit higher wear rate after adding the silica sand, while the wear rate of PEEK-based coating decreased with silica sand compared with no silica sand condition due to silica sand working as solid lubricant. The abrasive wear mechanism of ATSP was studied by varying the duration of experiments between 3420m and 13,680m, different silica sand size particles and different pin materials; scanning electron microscopy (SEM), micro-scratch testing and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) were used to verify the wear mechanisms.

Levitation force of small clearance superconductor–magnet system under non-coaxial condition

A novel superconducting tilting-pad bearing was proposed for the advanced research of reusable liquid hydrogen turbopump in liquid rocket. The bearing is a combination of superconducting magnetic bearing and hydrodynamic fluid-film bearing. Since the viscosity of cryogenic fuel to activate superconducting state and form hydrodynamic fluid-film is very low, bearing clearance will be very small. This study focuses on the investigation of superconducting levitation force in this kind of small clearance superconductor–magnet system. Based on Bean critical state model and three-dimensional finite element method, an analysis method is presented to obtain the levitation force under such situation. Since the complicated operational conditions and structural arrangement for application in liquid rocket, center lines of bulk superconductor and magnet rotor will usually be in non-coaxial state. Superconducting levitation forces in axial direction and radial direction under non-coaxial situation are also analyzed by the presented method.

Thermo-Hydrodynamic Analysis of Plain and Tilting Pad Bearings

The demand for higher efficiency and increased equipment compactness is pushing industrial compressors’ designers towards the choice of higher rotor peripheral speed. As a consequence, modern bearing-rotor systems are subject to complex thermal phenomena inducing a renewed interest on their real working conditions. This work is about the validation of the in-house numerical code TILTPAD developed at the Department of Industrial Engineering of the University of Florence for the thermo-hydrodynamic analysis of both plain and tilting pad journal bearings performance. TILTPAD is a steady-state code based on a 2D thin-film approach able to find either the resulting hydrodynamic load using the shaft equilibrium position and the rotational speed (i.e., direct problem) or the shaft equilibrium position once the load and the rotational speed are prescribed (i.e., inverse problem). In order to calculate pads’ pressure distribution a finite element approach is used to solve the Reynolds equation together with a mixed procedure to evaluate pads equilibrium positions. Two steady-state energy equations based on a Petroff-type simplification are implemented in the code. The first one is proposed in the work of Balbahadur and Kirk [1] while the second one is based on an improved mixing model and a temperature dependent viscosity. An iterative procedure is used between Reynolds and energy equations to account for the dependence of the dynamic viscosity on the temperature field. Super-laminar flow regimes are also modeled in the code by means of a simplified approach able to represents, with reasonable accuracy, the effects of Taylor-Couette vortex flows and of the transitional regimes up to the onset of a fully turbulent state. Under these hypotheses, the pressure field is slightly affected by the viscosity variation while dissipative effects are enhanced. The code has been validated by means of comparison with available experimental data. Particular attention is devoted to static working parameters (i.e., equilibrium position and frictional power loss), reproducing the global behavior of the bearing, although some local characteristic is also considered.

Uncertainty Analysis of a Tilting-Pad Journal Bearing Using Fuzzy Logic Techniques

This paper is dedicated to the analysis of uncertainties affecting the load capability of a 4-pad tilting-pad journal bearing in which the load is applied on a given pad load on pad configuration (LOP). A well-known stochastic method has been used extensively to model uncertain parameters by using the so-called Monte Carlo simulation. However, in the present contribution, the inherent uncertainties of the bearing parameters (i.e., the pad radius, the oil viscosity, and the radial clearance; bearing assembly clearance) are modeled by using a fuzzy dynamic analysis. This alternative methodology seems to be more appropriate when the stochastic process that characterizes the uncertainties is unknown. The analysis procedure is confined to the load capability of the bearing, being generated by the envelopes of the pressure fields developed on each pad. The hydrodynamic supporting forces are determined by considering a nonlinear model, which is obtained from the solution of the Reynolds equation. The most significant results are associated to the changes in the steady-state condition of the bearing due to the reaction forces that are modified according to the uncertainties introduced in the system. Finally, it is worth mentioning that the uncertainty analysis in this case provides relevant information both for design and maintenance of tilting-pad hydrodynamic bearings.

250 kW급 초임계 CO2발전용 감속기의 유체 윤활 베어링 및 회전체 동역학 특성 해석

This paper presents a rotordynamic analysis of the reduction gear system applied to the 250 kW super critical CO₂ cycle. The reduction gear system consists of an input shaft, intermediate shaft, and output shaft. Because of the high rotating speed of the input shaft, we install tilting pad bearings, rolloer bearings support the intermediate and output shafts. To predict the tilting pad bearing performance, we calculate the applied loads to the tilting pad bearings by considering the reaction forces from the gear. In the rotordynamic analysis, gear mesh stiffness results in a coupling effect between the lateral and torsional vibrations. The predicted Campbell diagram shows that there is not a critical speed lower than the rated speed of 30,000 rpm of the input shaft. The predicted modes on the critical speeds are the combined bending modes of the intermediate and output shaft, and the lateral vibrations dominate when compared to the torsional vibrations. The damped natural frequency does not strongly depend on the rotating speeds, owing to the relatively low rotating speed of the intermediate and output shaft and constant stiffness of the roller bearing. In addition, the logarithmic decrements of all the modes are positive; therefore all modes are stable.

HYDRODYNAMIC THRUST BEARINGS WITH POLYMER LINING

Polymeric linings of sliding surfaces of the hydrodynamic bearings have been used successfully for over 50 years. Despite of their long history of operation and research, they have not become widespread in industrial applications. This fact may be surprising, considering the conclusions that have been published concerning bearing operation and design. This paper summarizes the current state of the art of the tilting-pad thrust bearings with a polymer lining of pad sliding surfaces. Bearing design and the most commonly used polymeric materials are described. The results of the latest theoretical and experimental researches by both bearing manufacturers and at scientific centres are presented. Observed properties of the bearings with polymer lining were compared to the properties of the bearings covered with Babbitt, which is the most frequently material used as lining for hydrodynamic bearings.

Experimental identification of dynamic coefficients of lightly loaded tilting-pad bearings under several lubrication regimes

This paper presents the identified dynamic coefficients of a lightly loaded actively lubricated bearing under three lubrication regimes: passive, hybrid and feedback-controlled. The goal is to experimentally demonstrate the feasibility of modifying the bearing dynamic properties via active lubrication. Dominated by the latest two regimes, the bearing properties become adjustable or controllable due to the injection of either a constant or variable pressurized oil flow. Such a flow is regulated by a hydraulic control system composed of (a) a high-pressure oil supply unit, (b) servovalves, (c) radial injection nozzles, (d) displacement sensors and (e) well-tuned digital controllers. A scaled-down industrial rotor featuring active lubrication, composed of a flexible rotor supported by a four-rocker load-between-pads tilting-pad bearing under light load condition, is used for this objective. The experimental identification is performed by means of measured frequency response functions and a rotor finite element model. Predicted coefficients are also provided for benchmarking. Comparing results between the different regimes, presented along with their expanded uncertainty, provides the experimental evidence of the bearing properties modification via active lubrication.

Design of an axially concave pad profile for a large turbine tilting-pad bearing

To improve operational safety and/or achieve a higher load capacity of turbine tilting-pad bearings, an axially concave pad profile is presented. The thermal and mechanical stress of the loaded pads of a test bearing in load between pivot configuration has been analysed. Both film thickness and pressure distribution have been measured at a very high resolution. A fluid film calculation program in combination with a finite-volume-based structural mechanics program is used to simulate the deformation of a single pad under high circumferential speeds. In this context, the axial and tangential heat transfer coefficients of the pad surface, which act as boundary conditions for the calculation of the 3D temperature distribution, are determined using an optimization process. Herein, the match of predicted and measured pad temperatures is the goal. It can be shown that there must be a huge difference in heat transfer in axial and tangential direction in order to match the large measured temperature gradient in circumferential direction. Based on the measured deformed profile the program code is used to derive a concave pad profile, which will result in an axially non-arched sliding surface under the expected thermal load. Therefore, an iterative simulation procedure is used. By decreasing the axial arching of the pad and thus the large film thickness at the axial ends using an improved profile designed for a specific operation point, the minimum film thickness and maximum pad temperature can be influenced beneficially. The comparison of measurement data and calculation results shows very good agreement regarding the pad deformations. The results indicate that by axially concave profiling of the loaded pads of a large tilting-pad bearing for a specific operation point, the static characteristics in the form of temperature, film thickness and load capacity can be improved.

Electrical pitting of tilting-pad thrust bearings: Modelling and experimental evidence

Electrical discharges in bearings may occur in shaft lines equipped with electrical machines. This effect, known as electrical pitting, consists of the removal of material from the pad surface; this can lead to bearing pad failure mainly because of overheating and reduced load capacity.The case history of a fault caused by electrical discharges that occurred in the thrust bearing of a turbine is described in the first part of the paper. This phenomenon is then simulated by means of a thermal elastohydrodynamic model of the bearing, considering the effect of electrical pitting on the surface of the pad. Finally, the results of the simulations allow the irreversible failure of the bearing caused by the electrical pitting to be shown.

TEHD analysis of a bidirectional thrust bearing in a pumped storage unit

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to analyze lubrication characteristics of a bidirectional thrust bearing in a pumped storage, considering the effect of the thermal elastic deformation of the pad and collar. Design/methodology/approach This study used the fluid–solid interaction (FSI) technique to investigate the lubrication characteristics of a bidirectional thrust bearing for several typical operating conditions. The influences of the operating conditions and the thrust load on the lubrication characteristics were analyzed. Then, various pivot eccentricities were investigated to analyze the effects of the pivot position. Findings It is found that the effect of the radial tilt angle of the collar runner on the oil film is compensated for by the radial tilt of the pad. The central pivot support system is the main factor limiting the loads of bidirectional thrust bearings. Originality/value This paper has preliminarily revealed the lubrication mechanism of bidirectional tilting-pad thrust bearings. A three-dimensional FSI method is suggested to evaluate the thermal–elastic–hydrodynamic deformations of thrust bearings instead of the conventional method, which iteratively solves the Reynolds equation, the energy equation, the heat conduction equation and the elastic equilibrium equation.

Dynamic Characteristics of High- $T_{c}$ Superconductor and Hydrodynamic Fluid-Film Compound Bearing for Rocket Engine

A kind of superconducting tilting-pad bearing, which is a compound bearing of high-T <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">c</sub> superconductor and hydrodynamic fluid film, is proposed for the application of liquid rocket engine in this paper. Cryogenic fuel in rocket engines can be used as cooling and lubricating medium at the same time. The structure of the tilting pad can realize the introduction of hydrodynamic fluid-film force. Structural features of the superconducting compound bearing are discussed to satisfy practical application. Dynamic characteristics of the compound bearing are analyzed through experimental results of the superconducting magnetic field and theoretical results of the hydrodynamic fluid field. The results indicate that the superconducting compound bearing can make full use of the advantages of superconducting magnetic bearing and hydrodynamic fluid-film bearing, and possesses the advantages of being friction free and high stiffness.

Advanced polymeric coatings for tilting pad bearings with application in the oil and gas industry

Under extreme operating working conditions, the oil film in hydrodynamic bearings may get destroyed, resulting in mixed and boundary lubrication conditions; subsequently, the bearing surfaces might seize and cause catastrophic failure, rendering the machine non-operable. To address these extreme working conditions, three advanced coatings are proposed in this paper: polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) based, polyetheretherketone (PEEK) based and aromatic thermosetting polyester (ATSP) based coatings. A specialized high pressure tribometer, with a pin-on-disc configuration, combined with boundary/starved lubrication, was utilized to simulate the tilting pad bearing׳s severe working conditions encountered inside an Electrical Submersible Pump used in the oil and gas industry. Two sets of experiments, scuffing (step load) and constant load wear experiments were carried out. The coatings exhibited excellent performance compared to bare substrate materials. Scuffing experiments showed that all three coatings exhibited improved scuffing performance and wear experiments showed that the coatings exhibit relatively low coefficient of friction and low wear rate. Among coatings investigated, ATSP coating exhibited the best wear resistance.

Effect of presence of lifting pocket on the THD performance of a large tilting-pad thrust bearing

Abstract Hydrostatic assistance is a commonly used method to improve limited load carrying ability of tiltingpad thrust bearings during transient states of operation of vertical shaft hydro-generators. Despite of special hydraulic equipment (as pumps, valves, etc.), it also requires manufacturing of special recesses/pockets at pad sliding surfaces, into which oil is injected under high pressure. It allows to lift the rotor before start-up of the machine and form a hydrostatic film between pads and collar. There is a quite wide variety of geometry of recesses (shape, depth, and size) met in practical large bearing applications. The presence of a hydrostatic pocket (usually located in the sliding surface above the pivot area, where thin film, high oil pressure and temperature are observed) affects bearing performance under hydrodynamic operation. In theoretical researches, there is an almost common practice not to include hydrostatic recess in thermohydrodynamic (THD) or thermoelastohydrodynamic (TEHD) analysis. This is probably due to the problems with obtaining solution for oil film geometry with pocket, the order of magnitude of the pocket depths being larger than gap thickness. In this paper, an attempt was taken to study the effect of lifting pocket on THD performance of a large tilting-pad thrust bearing of Itaipu power plant. Bearing performance was evaluated including recess shape for several cases of its depth. The results show that hydrostatic recess changes calculated bearing properties quite significantly, especially in vicinity of the pocket.

Bump-Type Foil Bearings and Flexure Pivot Tilting Pad Bearings for Oil-Free Automotive Turbochargers: Highlights in Rotordynamic Performance

Oil-free turbochargers (TCs) require gas bearings in compact units of enhanced rotordynamic stability, mechanical efficiency, and improved reliability with reduced maintenance costs compared with oil-lubricated bearings. Implementation of gas bearings into automotive TCs requires careful thermal management with accurate measurements verifying model predictions. Gas foil bearings (GFBs) are customarily used in oil-free microturbomachinery because of their distinct advantages including tolerance to shaft misalignment and centrifugal/thermal growth, and large damping and load capacity compared with rigid surface gas bearings. Flexure pivot tilting pad bearings (FPTPBs) are widely used in high-performance turbomachinery since they offer little or no cross-coupled stiffnesses with enhanced rotordynamic stability. The paper details the rotordynamic performance and temperature characteristics of two prototype oil-free TCs; one supported on foil journal and thrust bearings and the other one is supported on FPTP journal bearings and foil thrust bearings of identical sizes (outer diameter (OD) and inner diameter (ID)) with the same aerodynamic components. The tests of the oil-free TCs, each consisting of a hollow rotor (∼0.4 kg and ∼23 mm in OD at the bearing locations), are performed for various imbalances in noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH; i.e., cold air driven rotordynamics rig) and gas stand test facilities up to 130 krpm. No forced cooling air flow streams are supplied to the test bearings and rotor. The measurements demonstrate the stable performance of the rotor–gas bearing systems in an ambient NVH test cell with cold forced air into the turbine inlet. Post-test inspection of the test FPTPGBs after the hot gas stand tests evidences seizure of the hottest bearing, thereby revealing a notable reduction in bearing clearance as the rotor temperature increases. The compliant FPTPGBs offer a sound solution for stable rotor support only at an ambient temperature condition while demonstrating less tolerance for shaft growth, centrifugal, and thermal, beyond its clearance. The current measurements give confidence in the present GFB technology for ready application into automotive TCs for passenger car and commercial vehicle applications with increased reliability.

Rotor Dynamics Behavior of Tilting Pad Bearing Supported Turbo-Expander Considering Temperature Gradient

This paper dedicates on the rotor dynamics behavior analysis on a tilting pad bearing supported turbo-expander rotor system considering temperature gradient. Both numerical and experimental investigations are conducted intensively. The influence of the temperature gradient is modeled as the change of the lubrication oil viscosity and the length variation of the clearance due to the cryogenic thermal expansion of the journal. The analytical expressions of the tilting pad bearing oil-film force are then amended and substitute into the lumped parameter model of the turbo-expander rotor dynamics. Linear analysis based on this model indicates that the existence of the temperature gradient can stabilize the turbo-expander rotor system to an extent, while the nonlinear analyses reveal that the temperature gradient will advance the occurrence of the quasi-periodic motion and break the equilibrium of the vibration between the expander side and the compressor side. Furthermore, an experimental system is established and the experimental results show that the temperature of the tilting pad bearing is influenced by the environment temperature greatly; the spectrum of the displacement of the rotor is dominated by the synchronous frequency of the impellers and bearings. The experiment results also observe the vibration amplitude decreases when the environment temperature gets down and grows when the rotating speed increases. At the same time, the sensitivity of the vibration amplitude versus rotating speed decreases as the environment temperature rises, and vice versa.

Nonlinear model identification of oil-lubricated tilting pad bearings

A new method of modeling and identification of weak nonlinear behavior of tilting pad journal bearings (TPJBs) is proposed. A novel nonlinear model of a TPJB based on a Taylor series expansion of oil film forces, consistent with the transient form of Reynolds differential equation (the original model), is developed. The least mean square technique in time domain is employed to identify Taylor series coefficients of the nonlinear model. The terms with dominant effects on the nonlinear oil film forces are chosen using the subset selection method. Good agreement is achieved between the predicated response obtained from the original model and the one evaluated through using the identified nonlinear model.

Centrally Pivoted Tilting Pad Thrust Bearing with Carbon-Based Coated Collar—Experimental Results of Low- and Medium-Speed Operation

Experimental results of the research on a tilting pad thrust bearing with symmetrical pad support in the conditions of high loads and low speeds are presented in the paper. As described in the literature review, experimental results of tilting pad bearings at low speed/high load regime and transient conditions are rare. Unusual material selection - steel pad against a DLC-type coating on the collar was utilized. Such material combination has been mostly used in automotive industry in concentrated contact friction pairs, but it is not commonly used in thick film contacts. The tests included low speed high load and a test, where a Stribeck curve was reproduced. The steel pads showed minimum traces of contact and no visible wear was noticed on the collar coating. Differences of operation in medium and low speed were observed. Big variations of bearing temperature at medium speed and almost constant pad temperature at low speed were measured. At a specific load of 5 MPa transition to mixed friction was occurring at a sliding speed of approx. 0.18 m/s.

Experimental test of static and dynamic characteristics of tilting-pad thrust bearings

The axial vibration in turbine machine has attracted more and more interest. Tilting-pad thrust bearings are widely used in turbine machines to support the axial load. The dynamic properties generated by oil film of the thrust pad have important effects on the axial vibration of the rotor-bearing system. It is necessary to develop the method to test the dynamic characteristics of thrust bearings. A new rig has been developed. The facility allows a complete set of bearing operating parameters to be measured. Parameters measured include oil temperatures, oil-film thickness, and pressure. The static load and dynamic load can be added on the thrust bearing in the vertical direction at the same time. The relative and absolute displacement vibrations of the test experimental bearing with the changes of dynamic force are measured, and the dynamic characteristics of the test bearing are obtained. The experimental results show clearly that the operating conditions influence largely on the pad static and dynamic characteristics.

Dynamic Coefficients of a Tilting Pad With Active Lubrication: Comparison Between Theoretical and Experimental Results

This paper deals with the validation of the mathematical model for predicting the equivalent stiffness and damping of an active tilting-pad bearing. The active bearing design includes an injection nozzle in the pad and a hydraulic supply system featuring a servovalve, which enables to modify the pressurized oil flow into the bearing clearance. The servovalve is governed by a control signal, obtained in open- or closed-loop configuration. The mathematical model includes the dynamics related to journal, tilting pads, and associated hydraulic system. First, the model results are tested against experimental results from the literature for industrial grade passive tilting pad bearings. This initial validation is followed by a comparison with experimental identification results obtained from a test rig featuring the active bearing design. Good overall agreement is observed in both configurations. The results provide an overview about the feasibility of modifying the bearing impedance by means of the active lubrication system, both in open-loop (fixed control signal), or closed-loop, as a function of the journal position and proportional derivative (PD) controller gains.

The Effect of Non-linear Pivot Stiffness on Tilting Pad Bearing Dynamic Force Coefficients

Abstract. Journal bearings are used on a variety of different rotating and reciprocating machines to support shafts that are rotating inside a bearing. In contrast to anti-friction type bearings where the primary mechanism is rolling action of contacting components, journal bearings operate by supporting the load of the shaft on a pressurized oil film. Approach of this paper is to describe static and dynamic loads and dynamic characterizes that effect on fluid film thickness and enhance tilting pad bearing model by including nonlinear pivot flexibility for rocker, spherical, and flexure type pivots.