Tilia Research Articles

Assessment of the Fire Risk Index and Fire Risk Rating of Five Wood Species According to Chung’s Equation-XII

Chung's equations-X, -XII, and -XII were applied to evaluate the fire risk index (FRI) and fire risk rating (FRR) of five wood species. The test specimens used were ginkgo tree, dawn redwood tree, toona tree, lime tree, and walnut tree. A cone calorimeter (ISO 5660-1) was selected and used to test the combustion characteristics of the specimens. The fire performance index-X (FPI-X) and fire growth index-X (FGI-X) calculated using Chung’s equations ranged from 560.59 to 2689.89 s<sup>2</sup>/kW and from 0.0005 to 0.0016 kW/s<sup>2</sup>, respectively. Furthermore, the FPI-XI and FGI-XI varied from 0.49 to 2.35 and from 1.67 to 5.33, respectively. FRI-XII, a FRR, showed that the fire risks of dawn redwood tree and ginkgo tree, at 10.88 (FRR: F) and 10.25 (FRR: F), respectively, were very high. In conclusion, a high FRI-XII value indicates that FPI-X and FPI-XI are low whereas FGI-X and FGI-XI are high.

Farklı Çözgenlerle Malatya’da Yetişen Ihlamur Ağacı Tohumu Yağı Eldesi ve Karakterizasyonu

In this study, the characterization study of the oil of linden seeds obtained by the extraction method was carried out. The outer shells of linden seeds collected from Malatya region in August 2018 were cleaned before extraction. Hexane, ethyl alcohol and acetone were used as solvents. Elemental analysis, XRD (X-Ray Diffraction), SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy), ash determination and saponification number determinations were performed for characterization processes. After the analysis, the oil yield with ethyl alcohol was determined as 33% by weight with acetone, 28.65% for hexane and 28% for acetone. In linden seed fatty acid, it was determined as oleic acid: 27.442 for acetone, 30.852 for hexane, 10.955 for acetone by weight, 11.929 for hexane, linoleic acid: 51.188 for acetone, 44.145 for hexane. The soap number value was determined as 232.48 mg KOH/g for ethyl alcohol, 176.72 mgKOH/g for hexane and 246.94 mg KOH/g oil for acetone. While the ash determination value was 5.755% for the seed, the shell ash was determined as 2.1% differently.

Plants in the artefacts not used for their original purpose. A remarkable case from the Lazdininkai (Kalnalaukis) cemetery in western Lithuania

This article investigates tinned bronze ornaments found in two graves of the Lazdininkai-Kalnalaukis cemetery dated to the end of the 2nd century to the first quarter of the 3rd century AD from the perspective of archaeological materials, intercultural contacts, 14C AMS dating, and chemical-physical and biological research. These ornaments — a wheel-shaped pendant and a bead — were originally parts of fashionable necklaces. However, these ornaments went into the graves as spinning tools. The wheel-shaped pendant from grave 8(1992) contains the first ever found, or at least officially recorded, use in Lithuania of an aquatic plant for a spinning tool bobbin. The piece of possible linden tree wood was used to compose the spinning tool bobbin found in grave 68(2001). These spinning tools are the first to have appeared in Lithuanian archaeological material from as early as the end of the 2nd century to the first quarter of the 3rd century. In addition, both spinning tools are unique in the Lithuanian archaeological record so far in that the copper alloy spindle whorls were used to compose both working tools. The closest analogues for the wheel-shaped pendant are known from the Wielbark culture and this example should be considered as an import from that cultural area. Copper alloy beads and various local derivatives, however, are numerous in the range of the Baltic cultures area. The copper alloy wheel-shaped spindle whorls from the Migration period cemeteries are the spinning tools created for the specific purpose of spinning which were produced locally, even possibly in the same workshops.

Early rootstock selection under ‘tahiti’ acid lime crown in Capitão Poço, Pará State, Brazil

Citrus represents one of the main fruit crops grown in the world, highlighting the ‘Tahiti’ acid lime tree. The objective was to compare rootstock varieties combined with this scion to identify those with the best agronomic performance and precocity of production, in addition to Phytophthora gummosis resistance. The experiment was carried out in Capitão Poço, northeast region of Pará, and the following seven rootstock genotypes were evaluated: ‘Sunki Tropical’, ‘BRS O S Passos’, ‘BRS Bravo’, ‘BRS Donadio’, ‘Citrandarin Indio’, ‘BRS Matta’, and ‘LVK x LCR-038’. A randomized block experimental design was used, with three replications and 10 plants per plot. The evaluated characteristics were: plant height (m); crown volume (m3); number of ripe fruit per plant; total yield of ripened fruit per plant (kg plant-1); cumulative fruit yield (fruit kg plant-1); and average productive efficiency (fruit kg m-3 of crown). The average productive efficiency was high. For early selection, the best rootstocks in terms of yield, stability and adaptability were Sunki Tropical, BRS O S Passos, and Cintradarin Indio. The fruit number had the greatest direct effect on fruit yield, and crown pruning was directly harmful. Further studies to understand the complex interaction of G x E for BRS Donadio and Sunki Tropical should be carried out.

Characterization of stress indicators in Tilia cordata Mill. as early and long-term stress markers for water availability and trace element contamination in urban environments

In the context of current climate change, municipalities tend to plant more trees in order to benefit from services they provide in urban areas, such as reducing heat islands. However, in cities, trees are subject to severe abiotic constraints, the main ones being soil contamination and the lack of water due to soil compaction and droughts. This can negatively impact the ecological services provided by trees. Our study aims to help managers in monitoring the phytosanitary status of trees in order to be able to react promptly. In a controlled condition experiment, different plant compounds were analyzed (proline, malondialdehyde-MDA, photosynthetic pigments) in the leaves of young linden trees conventionally grown for planting by the City of Paris, France. They were grown on a trace element (TE) contamination soil gradient, and under different water regimes (well-hydrated/no water stress (Ct), dehydration (Dh), rehydration (Rh)) to see if tested compounds could be early stress markers in trees. Chlorophylls (Chl) could be considered as water and TE-mediated stress markers. Indeed Chl a and b concentrations significantly decreased with dehydration (e.g. respectively −34 % and −24 %) and increasing lead concentration in leaves (respectively, correlation coefficients were −1.08; −0.64 (p < 0.001)). On the contrary, Chl concentrations increased with increasing copper concentration in optimal physiological ranges (correlation coefficients for Chla and Chb were respectively 1.3 and 1.08 (p < 0.05)). Proline and malondialdehyde seemed to be good complementary markers of water stress in the Tilia genus. Indeed, proline concentration increased during the dehydration period (early water stress marker) (mean concentration for Ct, Dh and Rh trees were respectively 3.6, 29.6 and 51.3 µmol.g−1 DW), while MDA increased during the rehydration process (marker for stress accumulation over time) (mean concentration for Ct, Dh, and Rh were respectively 461.8, 313.9 and 493.5 nmol.g−1 DW). In order to reinforce the diagnoses of urban tree managers, these stress indicators should be tested in situ.

Time-evolving Impact of Trees on Street Canyon Microclimate

Nowadays, cities are frequently exposed to heatwaves, worsening outdoor thermal comfort and increasing cooling energy demand in summer. Urban forestry is seen as one of the viable and preferable solutions to combat extreme heat events and urban heat island (UHI) in times of climate change. While many cities have initiated tree-planting programs in recent years, the evolving impact of trees on street microclimate, in a time span of up to several decades, remains unclear. This study focuses on the cooling effects of a common type of street trees, linden trees, in five age groups, i.e., 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-60, and 60-100 years old, while the diversity of trees is present in nature, that is, various species and crown geometries, The leaf area index (LAI) and leaf area density (LAD) of linden trees vary nonlinearly as they grow, peaking at different ages. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were performed for an idealized street canyon with linden trees of various age groups. Turbulent airflow, heat and moisture transport, shortwave and longwave radiation, shading, and transpiration were fully coupled and solved in OpenFOAM. Meteorological data, including air temperature, wind speed, moisture, and shortwave radiation of the heatwave in Zurich (June 2019), were applied as boundary conditions. The results show that young trees in the age group of 10-20 years old provide little heat mitigation at the pedestrian level in an extreme heat event. Optimal heat mitigation by trees is observed for the group of 30-60 years old linden trees. Finally, the potential impact of growing trees on air ventilation in streets is evaluated.

Response of Balady Lime Tree Growth and Productivity to Rootstock Type and NPK Nutrient Levels under Upper Egypt Conditions. A- Response of Balady Lime Tree Growth to Rootstock Type and NPK Nutrient Levels.

Response of Balady Lime Tree Growth and Productivity to Rootstock Type and NPK Nutrient Levels under Upper Egypt Conditions. A- Response of Balady Lime Tree Growth to Rootstock Type and NPK Nutrient Levels.

Response of Balady Lime Tree Growth and Productivity to Rootstock Type and Nutrient under Upper Egypt Conditions B. Response of Balady Lime on Tree Productivity and fruit quality to Rootstock Type and Nutrient Levels under Egypt Conditions.

Response of Balady Lime Tree Growth and Productivity to Rootstock Type and Nutrient under Upper Egypt Conditions B. Response of Balady Lime on Tree Productivity and fruit quality to Rootstock Type and Nutrient Levels under Egypt Conditions.

Glycerin‐based dispensers of fir oil reduce response of Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, to citrus odours

AbstractThe Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama, transmits the bacterial pathogen associated with huanglongbing, a fatal citrus disease. Alternatives to insecticides for D. citri management are being explored, given the development of insecticide resistance and the lack of efficient biological controls. Essential oils as pest repellents have shown some efficacy in laboratory and field evaluations; however, lack of an effective dispenser for field deployment has prevented their application. In this investigation, we evaluated glycerin‐based dispensers releasing fir (Abies spp.) oil as repellents for D. citri. In olfactometer tests, glycerin dispensers loaded with fir oil at 20% w/w repelled psyllids from citrus odours but did not cause repellency at lower loading dosages. Field evaluations were conducted with dispensers at the 20% loading dosage based on laboratory results. In open‐air cage bioassays, fewer psyllids alighted on trees treated with 2 dispensers per tree than on control trees. Similarly, fewer psyllids were found on mature lime trees in homeowner landscapes treated with 4 dispensers per tree compared to paired control trees. In small plot experiments in commercial grapefruit, psyllid infestation of young leaf flush shoots was reduced in plots treated with at least 250 dispensers/ha compared to untreated control plots. Our results indicate that these glycerin‐based fir oil dispensers can reduce infestation of citrus by D. citri. However, the efficacy observed within replicated small plots of citrus grown in monoculture was judged insufficient to manage this vector as a stand‐alone treatment. Larger scale evaluations at higher loading dosages of fir oil and/or in combination with other management tools are warranted based on the outcomes of these initial experiments.

Digital Image Processing On Kaffir Orange Peel With Canny Edge Detection Algorithm

Object tracking is a form of application of computer vision. To be able to track an object, a stage is needed in the image processing process. Image Processing is a field related to the process of image transformation (image). The image processing process is carried out to obtain better image quality. The harvesting system in kaffir lime is done manually, by choosing fruits whose skin color is green, and not yellowish. Due to the small and asymmetrical size and shape of kaffir lime, manual harvesting systems are still widely used to maintain the quality and quantity of the harvest. In addition, the manual harvesting system can also avoid damage to kaffir lime trees and obtain optimally ripe kaffir limes. Kaffir lime also has genders like humans, namely males and females. In male kaffir lime there is a circle that is more prominent in size underneath, while female kaffir lime has a flat shape. However, for consumption and medicinal purposes both male and female kaffir lime can be used without affecting the taste or quality of the fruit. With the image processing to determine the level of wrinkles on quality kaffir lime peel, kaffir lime will be selected which is usually used for herbal medicines. In this case, the Canny Edge Detection algorithm can be used to identify density edges in kaffir lime peels. Thus, the degree of wrinkles in kaffir lime peel can be calculated and measured to be more accurate. And can be separated quality or non-quality kaffir lime with the image of kaffir lime that has been seen through the image. The results obtained in designing and analyzing the quality of kaffir lime are clearer and more accurate with an image resolution value of 248 x 216 that the orange is included in the female kaffir lime type.The results tested that the right edge detection method in carrying out the edge detection process in the image of kaffir lime peel is the Canny Edge Detection Algorithm. By using the image on the Canny Edge Detection Algorithm, more dense and quality kaffir lime results are obtained so that it can be used for herbal medicine.

Mistletoe Extracts from Different Host Trees Disparately Inhibit Bladder Cancer Cell Growth and Proliferation.

Extracts of European mistletoe (Viscum album) are popular as a complementary treatment for patients with many different cancer types. However, whether these extracts actually block bladder cancer progression remains unknown. The influence of different mistletoe extracts on bladder cancer cell growth and proliferation was investigated by exposing RT112, UMUC3, and TCCSup cells to mistletoe from hawthorn (Crataegi), lime trees (Tiliae), willow trees (Salicis), or poplar trees (Populi). The tumor cell growth and proliferation, apoptosis induction, and cell cycle progression were then evaluated. Alterations in integrin α and β subtype expression as well as CD44 standard (CD44s) and CD44 variant (CD44v) expressions were evaluated. Cell cycle-regulating proteins (CDK1 and 2, Cyclin A and B) were also investigated. Blocking and knock-down studies served to correlate protein alterations with cell growth. All extracts significantly down-regulated the growth and proliferation of all bladder cancer cell lines, most strongly in RT112 and UMUC3 cells. Alterations in CD44 expression were not homogeneous but rather depended on the extract and the cell line. Integrin α3 was, likewise, differently modified. Integrin α5 was diminished in RT112 and UMUC3 cells (significantly) and TCCSup (trend) by Populi and Salicis. Populi and Salicis arrested UMUC3 in G0/G1 to a similar extent, whereas apoptosis was induced most efficiently by Salicis. Examination of cell cycle-regulating proteins revealed down-regulation of CDK1 and 2 and Cyclin A by Salicis but down-regulation of CDK2 and Cyclin A by Populi. Blocking and knock-down studies pointed to the influence of integrin α5, CD44, and the Cyclin-CDK axis in regulating bladder cancer growth. Mistletoe extracts do block bladder cancer growth in vitro, with the molecular action differing according to the cell line and the host tree of the mistletoe. Integrating mistletoe into a guideline-based treatment regimen might optimize bladder cancer therapy.

‘Happy children equal wonderful learners’

Danielle Lloyd, lead assistant head and inclusion lead at Lime Tree Primary Academy shares her thoughts on the importance of prioritising children's wellbeing in early years to allow them to flourish and be ready to learn. @DRatcliffeLloyd

New Approaches to Using Plant Flavor-Forming Enzymes

Background. Proteases, as well as enzyme complexes with various combinations of lipase, amylase, and cellulase, are used as flavor enzymes to impart aroma to processed raw materials. Plant-derived enzymes have significant potential for influencing aroma-forming reactions. Objective. The aim of this study is to investigate the intentional alteration of the aroma of onions, linden leaves, and cherry leaves by either activating (in the case of linden and cherry leaves) or inhibiting (in the case of onions) specific plant enzyme complexes. Methods. Linden and cherry leaves, as well as onion bulbs, were selected as the subjects that change their aroma by a complex of enzymes. To activate the enzymes present in the tree leaves, fermentation conditions similar to those used in tea leaf processing were applied. Mustard seeds and horseradish roots were employed as supplementary sources of enzymes. Ginger, extracts of bleck tea, grean tea, and oark bark were used to influence the reactions of onion aroma formation. Results. It was determined that flavor enzymes of tree leaves are active in different periods of leaf formation: enzyme complex in cherry leaves becomes active after flowering, while linden leaves exhibit enzymatic activity before flowering. Plant enzymes, such as mustard myrosinases and horseradish polyphenol oxidases, were found to be effective in modifying the onion's flavor. The substances contained in extracts of black tea, green tea, and ginger were observed to effectively inhibit the development of onion aroma. Conclusions. The compounds of ginger, black tea, and green tea extracts were found to slow down or inhibit the development of the onion aroma. The aroma of cherry and linden tree leaves undergoes transformation due to the natural leaf enzymes, resulting in aromas reminiscent of cherry berries and linden blossoms, respectively. Plant aroma-forming enzymes in linden leaves have a a more significant impact on the aroma before flowering, whereas aroma-forming enzymes in cherry leaves exert a stronger influence after fruiting.

Planting a Linear Vegetation Element in Landscape Using a Forestry and Landscaping Method—Can We Tell Which Deliver Greater Success?

Since the end of the 20th century, the Czech Republic has been developing an ecological network. Areas of ligneous greenery are being established throughout the landscape. The projects use different sizes of planting material: forestry seedlings and landscaping seedlings. In the South Moravian Region, in the vicinity of the village of Šardice, a series of measurements was carried out in 2016–2019 to compare the vitality of the greenery elements established by each of the methods. The height of the seedlings and trunk diameter were measured for the young trees while the shrubs were monitored for the seedling height only. Mortality was recorded successively for all the seedlings. The forestry method demonstrated greater growing vigour as indicated by the ratio of the trunk diameter increment to height while the landscaping method had lower mortality. In the forestry plantations, high mortality was found especially in poplars, oaks and hornbeams while in the landscaping plantations the poplars and oaks had the highest mortality. Elm, sycamore and poplar trees had the highest increments in the forestry plantations (but the latter was planted at different size). In the landscaping plantations, poplar trees (planted at a different size) delivered the best results, followed by maple, elm and lime trees. Shrub mortality was similar in both types of plantings. Hazel had a very high mortality while ivy, privet and honeysuckle had low mortality. Shrub height gain was higher in fenced forestry plantations. In unfenced landscaping plantations, damage by game was evident.

Discrimination of Leaves in a Multi-Layered Mediterranean Forest through Machine Learning Algorithms

Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) technology characterizes standing trees with millimetric precision. An important step to accurately quantify tree volume and above-ground biomass using TLS point clouds is the discrimination between timber and leaf components. This study evaluates the performance of machine learning (ML)-derived models aimed at discriminating timber and leaf TLS point clouds, focusing on eight Mediterranean tree species datasets. The results show the best accuracies for random forests, gradient boosting machine, stacked ensemble model, and deep learning models with an average F1 score equal to 0.92. The top-performing ML-derived models showed well-balanced average precision and recall rates, ranging from 0.86 to 0.91 and 0.92 to 0.96 for precision and recall, respectively. Our findings show that Italian maple, European beech, hazel, and small-leaf lime tree species have more accurate F1 scores, with the best average F1 score of 0.96. The factors influencing the timber–leaf discrimination include phenotypic factors, such as bark surface (i.e., roughness and smoothness), technical issues (i.e., noise points and misclassification of points), and secondary factors (i.e., bark defects, lianas, and microhabitats). The top-performing ML-derived models report a time computation ranging from 8 to 37 s for processing 2 million points. Future studies are encouraged to calibrate, configure, and validate the potential of top-performing ML-derived models on other tree species and at the plot level.

Biomass Identification from Proximate Analysis: Characterization of Residual Vegetable Materials in Andean Areas

This work was aimed at the characterization of residual generated biomass from pruned tree species present in the Andean areas of Ecuador as a source of energy, both in plantations and in urban areas, as a response to the change in the energy matrix proposed by the Ecuadorian government. From the proximate analysis (volatiles, ashes, and fixed carbon content), elemental analysis (C, H, N, S, O, and Cl), structural analysis (cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose content), and higher heating value, the studied species were pine (Pinus radiata), cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus), poplar (Populus sp.), arupo (Chionanthus pubescens), alder (Alnus Acuminata), caper spurge (Euphorbia laurifolia), and lime (Sambucus nigra L.) trees. We evaluated the influence of the presence of leaves in the biomass. From this characterization, we developed a method based on obtaining the main components for the identification of the biomass’s species. If the origin of the biomass was unknown, this method enabled us to identify the species, with all its characteristics. If the origin of the biomass was unknown, this innovative method enabled the identification of the species from the lignocellulosic biomass, with all of its characteristics. Finally, we developed regression models that relate the higher heating value to the elemental, proximate, and structural composition.

Cost-effective method for the estimation of tree crown density in urban settings using a smartphone

Abstract Urban trees provide vital ecosystem services, and assessing their health is crucial for managing urban infrastructure. Traditional methods of assessing crown density, an indicator of tree vitality, involve horizontal perspectives of unobstructed canopies. This study presents a novel method for estimating crown density in urban street trees that are surrounded by obstructing objects like buildings. The approach is based on photographs of the tree crown from defined positions using a smartphone. The method was validated on eight small-leaved lime trees in Leipzig during the 2021 vegetation period, demonstrating that crown density can be estimated by analyzing smartphone-photographs from various perspectives. The method provides data to quantify crown development and can be used to compare the vitality status of individual trees. The different perspectives are consistent in their estimates of crown density throughout the annual plateau phase of crown development. During the initial greening phase, crown photographs taken from angularly oriented positions showed a higher slope value than those taken from other positions. The method can also estimate the effect of blue-green infrastructures on tree vitality compared to regular urban tree planting methods. The approach is a practical and cost-effective tool for assessing tree vitality in spatially confined urban areas.

Financial Feasibility of Lime Farming (C. aurantifolia) in Landono District South Konawe Regency

The lime tree is a plant that significantly contributes to economic growth in Landono District, South Konawe Regency. This research aims to determine the feasibility of farming lime in Landono District, South Konawe Regency. The location determination was carried out purposively (purposively) considering that this area is one of the areas that carry out lime tree cultivation. The research was carried out from February to April 2022. The population in this research was 50 farmers. A simple random sampling using the Slovin formula obtained 33 farmers. The variables in this study were the identity of respondents and the feasibility analysis of farming. Data analysis uses feasibility analysis and sensitivity analysis. The research results obtained by calculating the variables in this research are the independence of the feasibility analysis, the NPV/net value is IDR 14,335,362&gt; 0 (positive) with the applicable bank interest rate of 6%, the NBCR calculation value is 1 .87&gt;1, IRR is 43.44%&gt;6%, and the calculation of Payback Period is a return on investment after 23 months. So from the calculation of the feasibility analysis of the business using four feasibility criteria for lime farming in Landono II Village, Landono Subdistrict, South Konawe Regency is feasible to cultivate. Based on the sensitivity analysis of lime farming in Deisa Landono II, Landono Subdistrict, South Konawe Regency, it meets the feasibility assessment criteria for a 10% increase in input costs, a 10% decrease in output costs and a 10% increase in input costs as well as a 10% decrease in output costs simultaneously while other factors are considered constant.

Helminthosporium paraoligosporum sp. nov., a new ascomycetous fungus from Ontario, Canada

A novel anamorphic ascomycetous fungus, Helminthosporium paraoligosporum (Pleosporales, Ascomycota), isolated from branches of linden trees is described and characterized. The species is morphologically distinct from other Helminthosporium spp. by shorter conidiophores and conidia, and culture characteristics. Phylogenetic analysis of a combined set of ITS and LSU sequence data also supports the establishment of a new species. H. paraoligosporum is clustered with H. caespitosum, H. oligosporum, and H. tiliae. The species in this clade have similar morphological characteristics and host affiliation. In particular, conidiophores of the species (except H. tiliae) can be reduced to elongated conidiogenous cells. H. caespitosum is associated with Betula spp., while the other species in this clade have been collected from Tilia spp. only.

Lime tree honey resources in Eurasia

The genus Tilia, commonly known as linden, basswood (North America) or lime tree (Eurasia), was investigated as a resource for honey. This article describes the results of melissopalynological analysis of the role of lime tree (Tilia spp.) in honey from Eurasia. From a review of published palynological characteristics and using independently discovered data from lime tree honey in Europe and Asia, five resource zones were identified where lime tree honey is produced. The lowest levels of Tilia pollen grains (0–44%) are typical for samples of lime honey from western and southern Europe (henceforth resource zone 1, RZ 1). In central European countries (RZ 2), honey with similar characteristics was reported (10–41% of Tilia pollen). The content of Tilia pollen grains in monofloral linden honeys from RZ 3, which includes the territory of south-eastern Europe, the south of central and eastern Europe, and the southern part of European Russia, was higher than in the previous zones (25–88%). Even higher rates (30–99%) were typical for linden honey samples extracted from the north of eastern Europe and European Russia (RZ 4). The regions in the Russian Far East (Primorye Krai) and the northeast China have been allocated to RZ 5. Here, we noted lime honey samples had the highest proportion of Tilia pollen (50–99%). An analysis of the features of the pollen spectra of all Eurasian linden honeys allowed the zones to be combined and be identified into two major groups: southern and northern.