Tibetan Buddhism Research Articles

Je Tsongkhapa’s Hagiographies as a Separate Field in Buddhist Historical Literature: the Early Period

This paper examines the early period of the historical genesis of the famous Namtars of one of the most iconic figures of Tibetan Buddhism: Je Tsongkhapa Losang Drakpa (1357-1419) — the founder of the Gelug school. Hagiographic Namtars hold a special niche in Tibetan literature as records of the spiritual life of the great Buddhist figures similar to Christian Vitas. If one is to examine the literary stratum of Tibetan biographies, Tsongkhapa’s biographies are notable for being especially prolific and varied. The purpose of this study is to provide proof that Je Tsongkhapa’s biographies can serve as a field of study unto themselves. This study’s objectives preliminary has to do with examining the primary early Namtars of Tsongkhapa, the origin behind the historical source, its contents, and its author. The subject of the study are Tsongkhapa’s biographies written in Tibetan language available in the archives of the Centre of Oriental Manuscripts and Xylographs of the Institute for Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies, as well as the archives of the TBRC. Early Tsongkhapa Namtars stand out as being particularly significant and being of great scientific interest. The novelty of this study is that it fills the various gaps that can be found in the field of Je Tsongkhapa’s biography in Russian Eastern Studies which could help with shedding light on the history of origin and proliferation of the Gelug which is particularly prevalent in Russia. The results of the study are to identify seven early namtars: two lifetime and five posthumous.

Nils Martin, The Wanla Group of Monuments. Fourteenth-century Tibetan Buddhist Murals in Ladakh

Nils Martin, The Wanla Group of Monuments. Fourteenth-century Tibetan Buddhist Murals in Ladakh

Protection of Places of Worship during Armed Conflicts: The Enrichment of International Humanitarian Law through Buddhism

Places of worship having deep spiritual attachments with people are highly protected as cultural property under International Humanitarian Law (IHL). While these places are given full respect, recognition, and protection, armed groups are prohibited from attacking or destroying them. The protection is included in the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the event of Armed Conflicts, Additional Protocol I and II to the Geneva Conventions of 1949, Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), and the Statute of the International Criminal Court. Further, it is highlighted under the Customary International Humanitarian Law as well. However, there are several significant instances around the globe where the protection of places of worship has been threatened during armed conflicts. In this context, this paper aims to evaluate the correspondence between IHL and Buddhism in relation to the protection of places of worship during armed conflicts. Therefore, this research employs desk research methodology in terms of ascertaining the correspondence between Buddhism and IHL. Accordingly, this research relies on secondary data in the areas of Buddhism and IHL. Thus, special references will be made to key IHL instruments, including Geneva Conventions, Customary International Humanitarian Rules, and case precedents. On the other hand, this paper refers to Buddhist literature on the protection of places of worship, including seven factors leading to welfare taught by the Buddha to the Vajjians, the verdict regarding the four places associated with the life of the Buddha, the 12th Rock Edict of Emperor Aśoka on respecting all religions and Bodhisattva vows mentioned in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. This paper believes that, although the key objectives of the two bodies are not identically same, the philosophical underpinnings of Buddhism can be used progressively for the enrichment of IHL relating to the protection of places of worship.

Progressive increase of high-frequency EEG oscillations during meditation is associated with its trait effects on heart rate and proteomics: a study on the Tibetan Buddhist.

Meditation has been a spiritual and healing practice in the East for thousands of years. However, the neurophysiologic mechanisms underlying its traditional form remain unclear. In this study, we recruited a large sample of monks (n = 73) who practice Tibetan Buddhist meditation and compared with meditation-naive local controls (n = 30). Their electroencephalography (EEG) and electrocardiogram signals were simultaneously recorded and blood samples were collected to investigate the integrative effects of Tibetan Buddhist on brain, heart, and proteomics. We found that the EEG activities in monks shifted to a higher frequency from resting to meditation. Meditation starts with decrease of the (pre)frontal delta activity and increase of the (pre)frontal high beta and gamma activity; while at the deep meditative state, the posterior high-frequency activity was also increased, and could be specified as a biomarker for the deep meditation. The state increase of posterior high-frequency EEG activity was significantly correlated with the trait effects on heart rate and nueropilin-1 in monks, with the source of brain-heart correlation mainly locating in the attention and emotion networks. Our study revealed that the effects of Tibetan Buddhist meditation on brain, heart, and proteomics were highly correlated, demonstrating meditation as an integrative body-mind training.

Материалы по визуальной антропологии монгольских народов в кинохронике А. Керна

Introduction. In 1923, Swiss filmmaker August Kern took motion pictures of Kalmyk settlements. Those were further used to compile an ethnographic film titled ‘Mysteries of Kalmyk Steppe. Glimpses of Kalmyk and Tatar Lifestyles’ (Fr. Les mystères de la steppe kalmouk. La vie des Tartars et des Kalmouks). Only one part of the film survived to the present but it does provide an extensive insight into the then life of Kalmyks. The newsreel depicts a short period, supposedly late spring to early summer, while one subtitle mentions Kern was able to film ‘an important religious feast of Kalmyks’. Goals. The articles attempts an analysis of ethnographic materials contained in A. Kern’s newsreel. The film is a unique and only early 20th century cinematographic document that shows religious rites, sporting events, and Kalmyk dance culture during festivities. Materials and methods. The work examines one variant of the cinematic chronicle archived at Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) and containing religious scenery. Results. Key elements of the storyline — clockwise circumambulation of sacred entities, respects to banners, recitations of holy texts in Tibetan — can still be witnessed in Kalmyk religious practices. However, the depicted clothing patterns of Kalmyk clerics are gone and replaced by unified monastic robes typical for all sects of Tibetan Buddhism. Nowadays only a small share of Kalmyk priests wear traditional garments, even the latter usually styled after Mongolian patterns. Conclusions. The analysis concludes the mentioned changes have resulted from interrupted religious and cultural traditions during antireligious struggle witnessed by 20th century Russia. Meanwhile, Kern’s materials attest to that 1920s Kalmyks — though separated from the rest of Mongol world — were successful enough in retaining their traditional culture.

Об отдельных буддийских экспонатах из Музея Калмыцкого научного центра РАН, связанных с именем Чже Цонкапы

Introduction. The Museum of Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS) houses quite a number of sculptural and pictorial images associated with the tradition of Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419; Tibetan Buddhist scholar to have founded the Gelug that gained widest distribution among Mongolic peoples) and delivered by different donators or from as various places. Goals. The articles analyzes several pieces of Buddhist art contained in the Museum’s collections and somewhat tied to the historical personality. Results. The analysis of one ‘altar group’ compiled from three images — those of Tsongkhapa and his two disciples — shows that the tradition of Mongolia’s Dorbets that share common ancestry with contemporary Kalmyks depicts the imagery with greater detail and semantics as compared to similar survived Kalmyk samples. However, the insight into the Kalmyk tradition attests to that the people were widely worshipping the Buddhist Teacher — founder of the Gelug.

“Сутра серця” в тибетській буддійській традиції та її український переклад

“Сутра серця” в тибетській буддійській традиції та її український переклад

Review of the book: Zorin A.V., Sabrukova S.S., Sizova A.A. The Catalogue of Texts of the Tibetan Buddhist Canon Kept at the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts, RAS. Vol. 3: Separate Texts and Collections (I). Ed. by A.V. Zorin. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Centre for Oriental Studies Publishers, 2020, 660 pp. ISBN 078-5-85803-495-7 (in Russian).

The work under review is the third volume of the fundamental work "The Catalog of the Tibetan Buddhist Canon Works from the Collection of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences", performed by a team of authors under the leadership of Alexander Valerievich Zorin. The first two issues (2017, 2019) were devoted to complete editions of the Buddhist kanon (Kagyura and Tengyura). This volume contains bibliographic information on individual editions of collections and treatises stored in the funds of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences and which are an integral part of the Tibetan Buddhist canon.

Санскритский перевод одного тибетского текста

Introduction. Sanskrit was always perceived by followers of Tibetan Buddhism as the language of sutras and shastras, language of knowledge and culture. This resulted in that Sanskrit used to be extensively studied and taught. Tibetan clerical scholars could not only read Sanskrit but would make repeated attempts of composing original texts in this language. The to be examined Hundred Deities of Tushita guru yoga, a liturgical address to Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), is a rare phenomenon in Tibetan Buddhist literature — Tibetan-to-Sanskrit translation. This anonymous text was created approximately in 18th–19th centuries to further be transmitted in a number of xylographic editions across Mongolia and Buryatia up to the early 20th century. Goals. The article seeks to show the Tibetan-to-Sanskrit translation pattern and introduce it into scientific discourse along with due analysis. Materials. The study explores one xylographic Tibetan-to-Sanskrit edition of Hundred Deities of Tushita from Buryatia submitted by A. Kocharov. Results. The work concludes the Tibetan-to-Sanskrit guru yoga text contains multiple grammatical mistakes and inaccuracies when viewed from the perspective of standard Sanskrit. In some sentences the anonymous author does follow rules of Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit, while in others observes no established Sanskrit declension and conjugation norms.

Shouldering His Guru’s Legacy: Khenpo Tsultrim Lodro’s Discourse in Relation to thos-bsam-sgom after the Death of Khenpo Jigme Phuntsok

This article contributes to the growing discussion of the ways that Khenpo Jigme Phuntsok’s legacy has been carried forward by his spiritual successors at the Larung Five Sciences Buddhist Academy (or Larung Gar), in contemporary Eastern Tibet, by focusing on the contribution of the Larung vice principal and leading second-generation luminary, Khenpo Tsultrim Lodro (1962–). Drawing on a range of Khenpo Tsultrim Lodro’s spoken teachings and writings over a twenty-year period, this article undertakes a contextualised analysis of how he has shouldered his guru’s legacy in the areas of Tibetan Buddhist monastic education, monastic governance, and monastic–lay relations. It explores how the threefold framework of thos-bsam-sgom (listening, reflecting, meditating), whether in its parts or its entirety, lies at the centre of his reformist discourse in these matters, articulated in relation to a wide range of Buddhist and secular concepts, as well as to concrete institutions and organisational structures. It is argued that, while Khenpo Tsultrim Lodro expounds the entire framework of thos-bsam-sgom throughout the years in question, in ‘the earlier period’ (c.2000–2012), from shortly before his guru’s death until approximately a decade afterwards, he subtly privileges the intellectual attributes associated with thos-bsam, while in ‘the later period’ (c.2013–2021) he reweights his exposition to give a balanced emphasis to the practice of sgom.

The Madhyamaka Contribution to Skepticism

Abstract This paper examines the work of Nāgārjuna as interpreted by later Madhyamaka tradition, including the Tibetan Buddhist Tsongkhapa (1357–1419). It situates Madhyamaka skepticism in the context of Buddhist philosophy, Indian philosophy more generally, and Western equivalents. Find it broadly akin to Pyrrhonism, it argues that Madhyamaka skepticism still differs from its Greek equivalents in fundamental methodologies. Focusing on key hermeneutical principles like the two truths and those motivating the Svātantrika/Prāsaṅgika schism (i.e., whether followers of Nāgārjuna should offer positive arguments or should proceed on a purely “negative” basis), it argues that the Svātantrika commitment to mere conventional practice is robust and allows for a skepticism consistent with the scientific practices we must take seriously in the modern world. These findings are put forth as an illustration of what the Western tradition might gain by better understanding of non-Western philosophy.

The Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara Empowerment in the<i> Maṇi bka’ ’bum</i>: The Teaching on One’s Own Mind

This paper investigates the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara empowerment taught in the Maṇi bka’ ’bum, and is a continuation of my paper published in IBK 69 （2） in 2021, pp. 810-806 and my book entitled Chibetto kenkoku sestuwa to Kanjizai shinkō: Mani Kambum “idainaru rekishisho” wo chūshin ni （チベット建国説話と観自在信仰――『マニ・カンブン』 「偉大なる歴史章」を中心に―― [Urayasu: Kishinshobo, 2021]）, in which I examined the Tibetan term rang sems sangs rgyas （one’s own mind as Buddhahood）, equivalent to zixinfo 自心仏 in Chinese and associated with a path that leads to the fruition of Buddhahood in a single lifetime. Jishinbutsu 自心仏 is a key concept in Japanese esoteric Buddhism, such as that of the Tendai 天台宗 and Shingon schools 真言宗. The concept is derived from the Mahāvairocanasūtra 大日経, a tantric scripture transmitted from India to Tibet during the period of the early diffusion of Buddhism into Tibet （snga dar）. This paper offers a textual source of the Avalokiteśvara empowerment in the Maṇi bka’ ’bum, identified through comparison with research conducted in a monastery belonging to the ’Bri gung Bka’ brgyud school in Ladakh, India, by Taido Kitamura together with other scholars of Shuchiin University, who documented that the empowerment performed in the monastery is based on a text attributed to King Srong btsan sgam po. Kitamura observes that he and his group received an empowerment as taught in the Mahāvairocanasūtra （Kitamura 1982 and 2021）. The numerous identical passages in the Maṇi bka’ ’bum and the description of the empowerment provided by Kitamura indicate that the esoteric teaching taught in the Maṇi bka’ ’bum must be intimately linked with the Mahāvairocanasūtra. The Maṇi bka’ ’bum teaches one’s own mind as being the dharmakāya, the emptiness to be realized through Mahāmudrā. By providing textual sources on the relationship between one’s own mind, Buddhahood and emptiness, this paper contributes to the reconstruction of a history of Tibetan Buddhist thought on Buddha-nature, while also providing a picture of what Buddhism was like during the earlier period of Buddhism in Tibet and identifying who the actual recipients of it were and who later spread it throughout Tibet after the arrival of Atiśa.

Discussing the Inheritance and Evolution of the Patronus Mahakala

As the only Gelugpa temple in Northwest China and the only Green Tara Dojo in China, Guangren Temple, a Tibetan Buddhism temple in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, is crucial to the study of Tibetan Buddhism development in the mainland. This paper takes the Patronus Mahakala as the starting point, because it is not only one of the most important Patronus, but also the incarnation of Shiva, one of the most critical gods in Hinduism. The extraction elements from the statues and the establishment of a connection with Tibetan Buddhism will help explore the origin of the external components of the sculptures in Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. Furthermore, through clarifying the process of religious transmission and development, the conflict and integration of the inter-sectarian, find the impact and evolution of the shape of Gods.

The Truth about Śrīgupta’s Two Truths: Longchen Rabjampa’s “Lower Svātantrikas” and the Making of a New Philosophical School

Abstract Longchen Rabjampa (1308–64), scholar of the Tibetan Buddhist Nyingma tradition, presents a novel doxographical taxonomy of the so-called Svātantrika branch of Madhyamaka Buddhist philosophy, which designates the Indian Mādhyamika Śrīgupta (c. 7th/8th century) as the exemplar of a Svātantrika sub-school according to which appearance and emptiness are metaphysically distinct. This paper compares Longchenpa’s characterization of this “distinct-appearance-and-emptiness” view with Śrīgupta’s own account of the two truths. I expose a significant disconnect between Longchenpa’s Śrīgupta and Śrīgupta himself and argue that the impetus for Longchenpa’s doxographical innovation originates not in Buddhist India, but within his own Tibetan intellectual milieu, tracing back to his twelfth-century Sangpu Monastery predecessors, Gyamarwa and Chapa.

A Boy's Spiritual Journey: The Cultural and Religious Conflict between Family Relationships and the Conventionalism of Tibetan Buddhism in Sarah Ruhl's The Oldest Boy (2014)

This research paper is mainly concerns with the analyzing of Sarah Ruhl's play The Oldest Boy (2014), critically via considering the clashes of culture, and religion with family ideologies. By Adherents T.S. Eliot’s approach in his Notes towards the Definition of Culture, the paper is devoted to looking at and embodying the cultural and religious rift occurring in Ruhl’s The Oldest Boy. And to stand on the fact of the impact of the cultural and religious conflict on the family relations by passing throughout the main event of the play as to attract a Christian-born child who is only three years’ old to convert to Buddhism, and to be a Tibetan Buddhism Lama. The case is hectic for an American mother with no information on, or faith in, Buddhism. The paper proceeds with the hypothesis that the genuine clash is inner and it lies in the Mother's battle to give up her child or not in the middle of the spontaneous flood of cultural, religious and emotional clashes. The paper concludes that religion is what shapes the culture of countries.

Necessary Questions of Chö: Uses and Abuses of Religion in Dondrup Gyel’s “Tulku”

“Why do you ask questions of roots and branches instead of the necessary questions of chö (Tib. chos)?” asks a character in Tibetan author Dondrup Gyel’s (don rgrub rgyal) controversial 1980 short story, “Tulku” (sprul sku). The Tibetan term chö can be translated in many ways, including to mean ‘the Buddhist teachings,’ ‘religion’ more generally, or even ‘the nature of reality.’ In “Tulku,” however, what chö means is not at all clear, and the various characters claim authority to determine what is legitimate chö. In the story, a Tibetan village is visited by a mysterious stranger claiming to be a tulku—a reincarnated religious leader— but who is actually a fraud. Most scholars have interpreted “Tulku” as a critique of traditional Tibetan religious devotion, and as a call by Gyel for Tibetans to modernize. This paper, however, proposes a new reading of “Tulku.” It suggests that Gyel pairs overt criticism of the corrupt tulku with a subtler critique of the Chinese government’s policy towards Tibetan Buddhism. It argues for such a reading by tracking how the word chö is used in “Tulku.” It shows that Gyel places the word not in the mouths of the Tibetan villagers, but rather in the mouths of the fraudulent tulku and the representatives of the Communist Party. Both thus use chö in order to appeal to the Tibetan villagers, claim power for themselves, and exclude the opposing party. “Tulku” thereby creates parallels between the ways in which the Tulku and the Party use chö to appeal to and manipulate the Tibetan villagers. On this reading, “Tulku” highlights the way chö can be weaponized by both traditional religious authorities and Communist party ideology, and suggests that in this modern period, any claimant to chö must be treated with caution and skepticism.

BUDDHISM: AN OVERVIEW OF ITS PHILOSOPHY AND DEVELOPMENT IN RUSSIA

It is a positivist philosophy that assumed a religious character, and it appeared in India after the Hindu Brahmin religion in the fifth century B.C. In the beginning, it was opposed to Hinduism and tended to take care of the human being. It also included a call to mysticism and harshness, and the rejection of luxury, and the call for love, tolerance, and doing good. After the death of its founder, it turned into false beliefs of a pagan nature, and its followers exaggerated its founder until he worshipped him. We conducted a literature study by reviewing various sources and using a descriptive analysis approach and a historical approach in presenting this article. It is considered an ethical system and a philosophical doctrine based on philosophical theories, and its teachings are not revelations but rather opinions and beliefs within a religious framework. Old Buddhism differs from New Buddhism in that the former is ethical, while New Buddhism is Buddha's teachings mixed with philosophical views and mental measurements about the universe and life. Buddhism has spread to all corners of the world, including Russia. Buddhism is considered one of the traditional religions in Russia, which is legally part of Russia's historical heritage. In addition to the historical monastic traditions of Buryatia, Kalmykia, and Tuva, Buddhism is now spreading throughout Russia, with some ethnic Russians converting to it. The main form of Buddhism in Russia is the Gelukpa school of Tibetan Buddhism, with other Tibetan traditions in the minority. Although Tibetan Buddhism is most often associated with Tibet, the religion spread to Mongolia, and via Mongolia, it was brought to Russia.

How Tibetan Nuns Become Khenmos: The History and Evolution of the Khenmo Degree for Tibetan Nuns

Tibetan Buddhist nuns are making history in numerous ways. They now meet in classrooms instead of tents, earn the title “Khenmo” after many years of dedicated study, and take exams that are standardized, frequent, and both written and oral. Additionally, the new educational system encourages Tibetan Jomos to take on more responsibility, increase their scholarship and practice, and obtain superior monastery/nunnery status. This article chronicles over two and a half decades of extensive fieldwork, covering the advances in monastic education and the rising standing of women in Larung Gar and contemporary China. These advances are in stark contrast to the limited opportunities for women in the past.

This Precious Human Life

Abstract This paper analyzes the idea of “human exceptionalism” from the perspective of Tibetan Buddhism. It argues that, in the Tibetan Buddhist context, many of the negative consequences of human exceptionalism are overshadowed by the concept’s ability to promote an altruistic comportment to the more-than-human world when supported by the Buddhist ontology and its broader project of liberating all beings from duhkha. To this end, this paper looks at how Tibetan Buddhist teachers qualify a “precious human life” by conducting a close reading of primary texts before extrapolating some general themes of these selected passages and applying them to our contemporary ecological situation. In doing so, it makes the argument that human exceptionalism is not a problem in and of itself but has a positive or negative effect on the more-than-human world depending on how it is established, maintained, and understood. It also demonstrates how Tibetan Buddhism can be a useful tradition for thinking alongside as we attempt to address global issues concerning the environment and nonhuman animals.

Translation: A Key Component of a Hundred-Year Project

The Emory-Tibet Science Initiative (ETSI) has embarked on a historic endeavor of introducing a systematic and sustainable science education program within the traditional Tibetan monastic institutions. His Holiness the Dalai Lama, who conceived and supports this initiative, calls it a hundred-year project. From the very beginning, translation from English to Tibetan has been an integral part of this project because of the need to prepare course materials as well as to facilitate on-site classes and lab activities in the Tibetan language. Our translation process involves not just conveying novel and foreign concepts across cultures but doing so with a scientific language peppered with technical terms that are not readily representable in the target language. In addition to the linguistic barriers, cultural and technical ones further complicate the process of communication. A case in point is the concept of life, or correlation versus causation, or the view that consciousness is an emergent property of the brain, where each construct has its corresponding but differing concept in Tibetan Buddhism. When engaging with such existing parallel yet divergent terms or concepts, the translators must strike a delicate balance and avoid forsaking the distinctive characteristics and connotations involved. In this article, the ETSI translation team shares its journey—highlighting the needs felt, challenges faced, and solutions sought. We discuss the translation principles guiding our work and the handling of such scientific features as graphs, acronyms, units, chemical names, and formulas. We hope our work will inspire other similar projects around the globe and encourage them to continue bridging barriers to cross-cultural dialogues, promoting cross-fertilization of knowledge for human flourishing.