Optical Breakdown Threshold Research Articles

Film-free laser forward printing of transparent and weakly absorbing liquids

A laser-based technique for printing transparent and weakly absorbing liquids is developed. Its principle of operation relies in the tight focusing of short laser pulses inside the liquid and close to its free surface, in such a way that the laser radiation is absorbed in a tiny volume around the beam waist, with practically no absorption in any other location along the beam path. If the absorbed energy overcomes the optical breakdown threshold, a cavitation bubble is generated, and its expansion results in the propulsion of a small fraction of liquid which can be collected on a substrate, leading to the printing of a microdroplet for each laser pulse. The technique does not require the preparation of the liquid in thin film form, and its forward mode of operation imposes no restriction concerning the optical properties of the substrate. These characteristics make it well suited for printing a wide variety of materials of interest in diverse applications. We demonstrate that the film-free laser forward printing technique is capable of printing microdroplets with good resolution, reproducibility and control, and analyze the influence of the main process parameter, laser pulse energy. The mechanisms of liquid printing are also investigated: time-resolved imaging provides a clear picture of the dynamics of liquid transfer which allows understanding the main features observed in the printed droplets.

Enhanced optical breakdown in KB cells labeled with folate-targeted silver-dendrimer composite nanodevices

Enhanced optical breakdown of KB tumor cells folate-targeted with silver-dendrimer composite nanodevices (CNDs) is described. CNDs [(Ag 0) 25-PAMAM_E5.(NH 2) 42(NGly) 74(NFA) 2.7] were fabricated by reactive encapsulation, using a biocompatible template of dendrimer–folic acid (FA) conjugates. Preferential uptake of the folate-targeted CNDs (of various treatment concentrations and surface functionality) by KB cells was visualized with confocal microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Intracellular laser-induced optical breakdown threshold and dynamics were detected and characterized by high-frequency ultrasonic monitoring of resulting transient bubble events. When irradiated with a near-infrared, femtosecond laser, the CND-targeted KB cells acted as well-confined activators of laser energy, enhancing nonlinear energy absorption, exhibiting a significant reduction in breakdown threshold and thus selectively promoting intracellular laser-induced optical breakdown. From the Clinical Editor This study presents a novel method to selectively destroy cancer cells by combining biochemical targeting with topical laser irradiation. A human epidermoid cancer cell line was targeted with folated silver-dendrimer composite nanodevices and the labeled cancer cells were subsequently destroyed by the microbubbles generated due the enhanced energy uptake of the silver nanoparticles from the laser irradiation, as compared to unlabeled cells.

Modeling of ultrashort pulsed laser ablation in water and biological tissues in cylindrical coordinates

A numerical model combining the ultrafast radiative transfer and the ablation rate equation is proposed to investigate the transient process of plasma formation during laser plasma-mediated ablation of absorbing-scattering media. The focus beam propagation governed by the transient equation of radiative transfer is solved by the transient discrete ordinates method to account for scattering effect. The temporal evolution of the free-electron density governed by the ablation rate equation is calculated using a fourth-order Runge–Kutta method to examine various effects such as the multiphoton, chromophore, and cascade ionizations. The threshold of optical breakdown, the shape and maximum length of plasma growth for ablation in water are predicted by the present model and compared with the existing experimental and numerical data. Good agreements have been found. The dynamic process of plasma formation for ablation in the model skin tissue is simulated. A parametric study with regard to the influences of the ionization energy and the critical free-electron density on the ablation threshold of the tissue is conducted.

Photodisruption cristallinienne par laser femtoseconde : étude expérimentale

The aim of this study was to analyze the interactions during femtosecond (fs) laser photodisruption in ex vivo porcine crystalline lenses and to study the parameters for laser interaction optimization. An experimental femtosecond laser was used. The laser characteristics were: 1030 nm wavelength; pulse duration, 400 fs; and numerical aperture, 0.13. Specific software was created to custom and monitor any type of photoablation pattern for treatment purposes. Porcine crystalline lenses were placed in an open sky holder filled with physiological liquid (BSS) covered by a glass plate. A numerical camera was associated with metrological software in order to magnify and quantify the results. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was performed on some samples to identify the microscopic plasma interactions with the lens. The optimization of parameters was investigated in terms of the optical breakdown threshold, the sizing of interactions, and the best pattern for alignments. More than 150 crystalline lenses of freshly enucleated pigs were treated. The optical breakdown threshold (OBT) was defined as the minimal energy level per pulse necessary to observe a physical interaction. In our study, the OBT varied according to the following parameters: the crystalline lens itself, varying from 4.2 to 7.6 μJ (mean, 5.1 μJ), and the depth of laser focus, varying up to 1 μJ, increasing in the depth of the tissue. Analyzing the distance between impacts, we observed that the closer the impacts were the less power was needed to create a clear well-drawn defect pattern (lines), i.e., with a 4-μJ optimized OBT, when the impacts were placed every 2 μm for the x,y directions and 60 μm for the z direction. Coalescent bubbles created by plasma formation always disappeared in less than 24h. The nonthermal effect of plasma and the innocuousness on surrounding tissues were proven by the TEM results. The crystalline lens photodisruption by the femtosecond laser seems an innovative technique usable in the ultra precise crystalline lens cutting. Experimental studies in vivo are necessary in order to define of them the applications (surgery of the cataract and presbyopia) and limits in the cavitations bubbles kinetic and transfer.

Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy of germane plasma induced by IR CO2 pulsed laser

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) in germane (GeH4), initially at room temperature and pressures ranging from 2 to 10 kPa, was studied using a high-power transverse excitation atmospheric (TEA) CO2 laser (λ=10.653 μm, τFWHM=64 ns and power densities ranging from 0.28 to 5.52 GW cm−2). The strong emission spectrum of the generated plasma is mainly due to electronic relaxation of excited Ge, H and ionic fragments Ge+, Ge2+ and Ge3+. The weak emission is due to molecular bands of H2. Excitation temperatures of 8100±300 K and 23,500±2500 K were estimated by Ge atomic and Ge+ singly ionized lines, respectively. Electron number densities of the order of (0.7–6.2)×1017 cm−3 were deduced from the Stark broadening of several atomic Ge lines. The characteristics of the spectral emission intensities from different species have been investigated as functions of the germane pressure and laser irradiance. Optical breakdown threshold intensities in germane at 10.653 μm have been determined. The mechanism of initiation of the laser-induced plasma in germane has been analyzed.

Interaction of vacuum ultraviolet excimer laser radiation with fused silica. I. Positive ion emission

We report time- and mass-resolved measurements of Si+ and O+ emission from ultraviolet-grade fused silica during exposure to pulsed 157 nm excimer laser radiation at fluences below the threshold for optical breakdown. The emission intensities are increased by treatments that increase the density of surface defects, such as abrasion, and are reduced by treatments that reduce the density of surface defects, such as annealing. Ion emission is a sensitive probe of mechanical damage on silica surfaces. The mean ion kinetic energies are typically several eV: 8–9 eV for Si+ and about 4 eV for O+. Hartree–Fock studies of candidate defect sites suggest that antibonding states excited by 157 nm photons play a critical role in the release of these ions. We propose that positive ion emission from fused silica under these conditions is best explained by a hybrid mechanism involving (a) the excitation of an antibonding chemical state (Menzel–Gomer–Redhead mechanism) and (b) the acceleration of the positive ion by repulsive electrostatic forces due to the photoionization of nearby electron traps.

Interaction of vacuum ultraviolet excimer laser radiation with fused silica. III. Negative ion formation

We report mass- and time-resolved measurements of negative ions produced by exposing fused silica to 157 nm radiation at fluences below the threshold for optical breakdown. The principal observed negative ions are O−, Si−, and SiO−, in order of decreasing intensity. The peak in the negative ion time-of-flight signals occurs after the peak in the positive ion signal and before the peak in the corresponding neutral atom or molecule signal. The negative ion intensities are strong functions of the degree of overlap between the positive ion and neutral atom densities. We propose that O−, Si−, and SiO− are created after the laser pulse, by electron attachment to these neutral particles and that the electrons participating in attachment events are trapped in the electrostatic potential of the positive ions.

Interaction of vacuum ultraviolet excimer laser radiation with fused silica: II. Neutral atom and molecule emission

We report mass-resolved time-of-flight measurements of neutral Si, O, and SiO from ultraviolet-grade fused silica during pulsed 157-nm irradiation at fluences well below the threshold for optical breakdown. Although the emission intensities are strongly affected by thermal treatments that affect the density of strained bonds in the lattice, they are not consistently affected by mechanical treatments that alter the density of point defects, such as polishing and abrasion. We propose that the absorption of single 157 nm photons cleave strained bonds to produce defects that subsequently diffuse to the surface. There they react with dangling bonds to release neutral atoms and molecules. Hartree–Fock calculations on clusters containing these defects support the contention that defect interactions can yield emission. More direct emission by the photoelectronic excitation of antibonding chemical states is also supported.

Emission of Negative Potassium Ions from Single Crystal Potassium Bromide during Exposure to 248-nm Excimer Laser Radiation

Many wide bandgap materials yield charged and neutral emissions when exposed to sub-bandgap laser radiation at power densities below the threshold for optical breakdown and plume formation. In previous work, we reported the observation of negative alkali ions from several alkali halides under comparable conditions. Within our detection sensitivity, we observed no negative halogen ion emission, in spite of the high electron affinities of the halogens. Significantly, the positive and negative alkali ions showed a high degree of spatial and temporal overlap. Our conclusion, based on a detailed study of KCl emissions, was that K− is formed by the sequential attachment of two electrons to K+. Here we provide further evidence for this mechanism based on a study of KBr.

Spectroscopy study of air plasma induced by IR CO2 laser pulses

A spectroscopic study of ambient air plasma, initially at room temperature and pressures ranging from 32 to 101 kPa, produced by high-power transverse excitation atmospheric (TEA) CO2 laser (λ=9.621 and 10.591 μm; τ FWHM≈64 ns; power densities ranging from 0.29 to 6.31 GW cm−2) has been carried out in an attempt to clarify the processes involved in laser-induced breakdown (LIB) air plasma. The strong emission observed in the plasma region is mainly due to electronic relaxation of excited N, O and ionic fragments N+. The medium-weak emission is due to excited species O+, N2+, O2+, C, C+, C2+, H, Ar and molecular band systems of N $_{2}^{+}($ B $^{2}\varSigma _{\mathrm{u}}^{+}$ –X $^{2}\varSigma _{\mathrm{g}}^{+})$ , N2(C3 Π u–B3 Π g), N $_{2}^{+}($ D2 Π g–A2 Π u) and OH(A2 Σ +–X2 Π). Excitation temperatures of 23400±700 K and 26600±1400 K were estimated by means of N+ and O+ ionic lines, respectively. Electron number densities of the order of (0.5–2.4)×1017 cm−3 and (0.6–7.5)×1017 cm−3 were deduced from the Stark broadening of several ionic N+ and O+ lines, respectively. Estimates of vibrational and rotational temperatures of N $_{2}^{+}$ electronically excited species are reported. The characteristics of the spectral emission intensities from different species have been investigated as functions of the air pressure and laser irradiance. Optical breakdown threshold intensities in air at 10.591 μm have been measured.

Investigation on high-power load ability of stimulated Brillouin scattering phase conjugating mirror

The factors that affect the performance of stimulated Brillouin scattering phase conjugating mirror (SBS-PCM) in high-power condition are demonstrated. In high-power condition, the reflectivity is limited by both the SBS medium and the PCM configuration. FC-72 is found to be the best SBS liquid medium for its very high optical breakdown threshold and very low absorption coefficient by comparing several media. As FC-72 is chosen, the impurity of the liquid is the most remarkable factor which affects the reflectivity of PCM. The Millipore membrane filters with aperture of 0.22 μm was used to clean the liquid, and the reflectivity was evidently increased. Among the parameters of the SBS-PCM, the focal length of lens is one of the most important parameters related to the load ability. In the condition of the input laser of 1 J and 10 Hz, the appropriate focal length is proved to be 50 cm. As lens is chosen, the rotating wedge plate (RWP) is used to decrease the effects of optical breakdown and thermal effects in the condition of high power and stable reflectivity is achieved. Synthetically considering all the factors of medium and configuration, an energy reflectivity of 82% is achieved when the input energy is 0.94 J and the repetition rate is at 10 Hz.

Repetition rate dependency of low-density plasma effects during femtosecond-laser-based surgery of biological tissue

Femtosecond laser based nanosurgery of biological tissue is usually done in two different regimes. Depending on the application, low kHz repetition rates above the optical breakdown threshold or high MHz repetition rates in the low-density plasma regime are used. In contrast to the well understood optical breakdown, mechanisms leading to dissection below this threshold are not well known due to the complexity of chemical effects with high numbers of interacting molecules. Furthermore, the laser repetition rate may influence their efficiency. In this paper, we present our study on low-density plasma effects in biological tissue depending on repetition rate by static exposure of porcine corneal stroma to femtosecond pulses. We observed a continuous increase of the laser-induced damage with decreasing repetition rate over two orders of magnitude at constant numbers of applied laser pulses or constant laser pulse energies. Therefore, low repetition rates in the kHz regime are advantageous to minimize the total delivered energy to biological tissue during femtosecond laser irradiation. However, due to frequent excessive damage in this regime directly above the threshold, MHz repetition rates are preferable to create nanometer-sized cuts in the low-density plasma regime.

Micro-Raman spectroscopy of refractive index microstructures in silicone-based hydrogel polymers created by high-repetition-rate femtosecond laser micromachining

Micro-Raman spectroscopy was used to study silicone-based hydrogel polymers after being modified by 800 nm, 27 fs laser pulses from a Ti:sapphire oscillator at 93 MHz repetition rate. When the irradiation conditions were below the optical breakdown threshold of the polymers, no significant changes in the Raman spectra and background fluorescence were observed even when refractive index changes as large as +0.06±0.005 were observed. On the other hand, changes in the Raman spectra and fluorescence were easily detected when higher pulse energy was employed to induce visible optical damage in the hydrogel polymers. These results show that a significant refractive index modification, below the optical breakdown threshold in silicone-based hydrogel polymers, can be realized in the absence of any significant change in the Raman spectrum of polymer composition. A thermal model is presented to explain these results. It shows that high-repetition-rate laser pulses cause significant heat accumulation, which can induce additional cross-linking and densification in the polymer network, resulting in locally increased refractive index.

Azimuthal dependence of the two-photon absorption coefficient for CdP2 crystals with tetragonal syngony

We studied the two-photon absorption coefficient (β) for cadmium diphosphide (CdP2) single crystals in the tetragonal modification vs. the polarization azimuth (φ) of the incident light for intensities close to the optical breakdown (or optical damage) threshold for the crystal (11 MW/cm2). We have established that the value of βmax = 0.16 cm/MW is reached for φ = 0, i.e., for the ordinary wave. At the lasing frequency of a ruby laser, β⊥/β|| = 2.13, which suggests anisotropy of the two-photon absorption in the studied crystals. These dependences are needed for design and fabrication of quantum electronics and nonlinear optics elements whose operation is based on the use of the two-photon absorption effect for high radiation fluxes.

X radiation from a laser-triggered spark gap

Laser triggering of spark gaps is now widely used for low-jitter firing of one or several spark gaps [1–5]. The most important advantage of laser-triggered high-voltage spark gaps is no galvanic coupling between the gap electrodes and the laser. This allows low-jitter firing of one or several spark gaps to which electrodes a dc or a pulsed voltage is applied. Conduction between the spark gap electrodes is initiated by the plasma produced at one of the electrodes or in the gas-filled gap. For a laser-triggered spark gap, the trigger delay and jitter depend on the gas mixture composition and pressure, laser beam focusing site, electric field strength, laser wavelength, radiation power density and pulse duration, and laser beam divergence. For low radiation pulse energies, the shortest trigger delays are achieved for systems with uv lasers, though in some cases, pulsed lasers operating in other spectral ranges are used. Elegas (SF6) or its mixtures with nitrogen are generally used for the working gas in high-voltage spark gaps. SF6 is electronegative gas possessing high electric strength. In optimum conditions (high electric fields, optical breakdown of the gas in a gap at the cathode) the delay time of the spark gap triggering after application of a laser pulse is a few nanoseconds, and the jitter is no more than 1 ns even for a rather short length of the laser spark (about ten gap spacings). Recently it has been shown [6] that the spark preionization systems that are widely used to initiate a volumetric discharge in pulsed lasers generate not only uv and vuv radiation, but also x rays. This makes preionization more uniform and improves the lasing performance for some lasers. There are many reports on x radiation and runaway electron beams in nanosecond discharges initiated in a nonuniform electric field (see, e.g., [7, 8–14]). Supershort avalanche electron beams (SAEBs) where produced in gas diodes at a pressure of 12 atm for helium, 4 atm for nitrogen, and 2 atm for xenon and elegas [8, 10, 14]. It was natural to suggest that runaway electrons and x radiation are generated in a laser-triggered discharge gap as well, and it is just the runaway electrons and x radiation that provide low-jitter laser triggering. However, we have found no information on this subject in the available literature. Note that in conditions of laser triggering, the threshold of optical breakdown for gases used in spark gaps is in the range 5⋅10– 5⋅10 W/cm [1, 15], which is several orders of magnitude lower than the threshold for the appearance of runaway electrons and x radiation in a laser plasma [16]. The goal of the work under discussion was to detect x radiation from a laser-triggered spark gap and to demonstrate that the generation of x radiation in the gap is due to the electric field enhancement by the laser-produced plasma.

Optical emission spectroscopy of oxygen plasma induced by IR CO2 pulsed laser

Laser-induced breakdown (LIB) spectroscopy in oxygen at room temperature and pressures ranging from 4.6 to 75 kPa was studied using a high-power transverse excitation atmospheric CO2 laser (λ = 9.621 and 10.591 µm; τFWHM = 64 ns; power densities ranging from 0.87 to 6.31 GW cm−2). The spectrum of the generated plasma is dominated by emission of strong O, O+ and weak O2+ atomic lines. Excitation temperatures of 31 500 ± 1600 K and 23 000 ± 3000 K were estimated by means of O2+ and O+ ionic lines, respectively. Electron number densities of the order of (3.5–16.5) × 1016 cm−3 were deduced from the Stark broadening of several ionic O+ lines. The characteristics of the spectral emission intensities from different species have been investigated as functions of the oxygen pressure and laser irradiance. Optical breakdown threshold intensities in O2 at 10.591 µm have been determined. The physical processes leading to LIB of oxygen have been analysed.

Characterization and use of laser-based lysis for cell analysis on-chip

We demonstrate the use of a pulsed laser microbeam for cell lysis followed by electrophoretic separation of cellular analytes in a microfluidic device. The influence of pulse energy and laser focal point within the microchannel on the threshold for plasma formation was measured. The thickness of the poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) layer through which the beam travelled was a critical determinant of the threshold energy. An effective optical path length, Leff, for the laser beam can be used to predict the threshold for optical breakdown at different microchannel locations. A key benefit of laser-based cell lysis is the very limited zone (less than 5 microm) of lysis. A second asset is the rapid cell lysis times (approx. microseconds). These features enable two analytes, fluorescein and Oregon Green, from a cell to be electrophoretically separated in the channel in which cell lysis occurred. The resolution and efficiency of the separation of the cellular analytes are similar to those of standards demonstrating the feasibility of using a pulsed laser microbeam in single-cell analysis.

Investigation of stimulated Brillouin scattering media perfluoro-compound and perfluoropolyether with a low absorption coefficient and high power-load ability

The correlations between stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) characteristics of perfluoro-compound (PFC) and perfluoropolyether (PFPE) and their chemical structure are analyzed in detail and a series of new PFC and PFPE are reported. In the Nd:YAG laser system, the absorption coefficient, optical breakdown threshold (OBT), SBS threshold, and Brillouin frequency shift of new media such as FC-87, FC-43, HT-55, and DET are measured. Parameters such as gain coefficient, Brillouin linewidth, and phonon lifetime are calculated. The results demonstrate their good SBS properties: the absorption coefficients are below 10(-3)cm(-1) and OBTs are above 100 GW/cm(2). These media also exhibit a series of unique physicochemical properties, i.e., high heat-resistance, high oxidation stability, good chemical inertness, and insulation properties. The discovery of new media not only diversifies SBS medium, but also improves the performance of the SBS system, thereby laying a good foundation for the application of a SBS phase conjugation mirror in a high-power laser system.

Femtosecond-Laser-Induced Nanocavitation in Water: Implications for Optical Breakdown Threshold and Cell Surgery

We determined the bubble radius R_(max) for femtosecond optical breakdown in water at 347, 520, and 1040 nm with an unprecedented accuracy (+/-10 nm). At threshold, R_(max) was smaller than the diffraction-limited focus radius and ranged from 190 nm to 320 nm. The increase of R_(max) with laser energy E_(L) is slowest at 347 nm, providing optimum control of cell surgery. Experimental results agree with a model of bubble formation in heated and thermoelastically stretched liquids. Theory predicts a threshold temperature T_(th) approximately equal to 168 degrees C. For T>300 degrees C, a phase explosion sets in, and R_(max) increases rapidly with E_(L).

New SBS media——perfluorinated amines

The stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) media perfluorinated amines with good SBS characteristics have been discovered based on the dependence of SBS characteristics on the chemical structures. The SBS parameters of perfluorinated amines such as FC-131, FC-3283, FC-40, FC-43 and FC-70 have been measured or calculated. The results demonstrate that their absorption coefficients are below 10-3cm-1 and optical breakdown thresholds are above 100GW/cm2. The perfluorinated amines also exhibit a series of unique physicochemical properties, i.e., non-toxic property, low volatility, and high stability. The discovery not only diversifies the SBS media, but also improves the performance of SBS system, thereby laying a good foundation for the application of SBS phase conjugation mirror in high-power laser systems.