Three-wheeled Electric Vehicle Research Articles

Estimation of SOC for Li-ion battery-powered three-wheeled electric vehicle using machine learning methods

Abstract The Battery Management System (BMS) serves as the heart of the electric vehicle system, in which estimating the state of charge (SOC) is the crucial part of the BMS to ensure the durability, reliability, and sustainability of the battery pack. Due to its nonlinear characteristics, accurately estimating the SOC for a slow degradation of the charge is highly cumbersome. The literature provides a series of machine learning algorithms (MLA) to estimate and predict the SOC of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery systems for electric vehicle (EV) applications. The literature has proposed various MLA, coulomb counting, and different Kalman filter methods to address this challenge and estimate the SOC of Li-ion battery systems for EV applications. This research looks at the differences and similarities between the coulomb counting method, the unscented Kalman filter method, and a number of machine learning algorithms. These include linear regression, polynomial linear regression, support vector regression, decision trees, random forests, artificial neural networks (ANN), and long short-term memory (LSTM). The goal is to assess the MLAs' accuracy in estimating battery SOC. Analyzing model errors optimizes the battery's performance parameter. We identify ANN and LSTM as the two most efficient methods for accurate SOC estimation in an EV-operated BMS system by evaluating the performance indices of the aforementioned machine learning methodologies. Once again, the LSTM model for SOC estimation has proven to be highly accurate in analyzing the discrepancy between the actual and predicted traveling ranges of the designed prototype. We design a MATLAB/SIMULINK EV powertrain by collecting realtime data from the Li-ion battery pack, analyzing the SOC variation data, and using the previously mentioned MLA in the Python platform to estimate the SOC and its accuracy. It highlights the effectiveness of advanced MLAs in improving SOC estimation, thereby enhancing the performance and reliability of EV battery systems.

Comparative Analysis of Materials for Chassis Design in a Three-Wheeled Electric Vehicle

With the growing interest in sustainable transportation, three-wheeled electric vehicles have gained popularity as an eco-friendly mode of transportation. The design of the chassis is a critical aspect of ensuring the structural integrity and performance of these vehicles. This research paper presents a comparative evaluation of different materials for chassis design in three-wheeled electric vehicles. The objective of this study is to assess the suitability of various materials, including steel, aluminum, and carbon fiber composites, for chassis construction. The evaluation criteria encompass factors such as strength, weight, stiffness, durability, and cost. A systematic methodology is employed, including theoretical analysis, computer simulations, and practical testing, to evaluate and compare the performance of each material. The findings of this research provide valuable insights into the advantages and limitations of each material in the context of three-wheeled electric vehicle chassis design. The results assist in the selection of the most suitable material based on performance requirements, cost considerations, and sustainability goals. Furthermore, the research identifies potential areas for further improvement and innovation in chassis materials for future electric vehicle designs. The outcomes of this study aim to guide manufacturers, designers, and engineers in making informed decisions when selecting materials for chassis design, ultimately enhancing the safety, efficiency, and overall performance of three-wheeled electric vehicles. By contributing to the development of sustainable transportation solutions, this research promotes the transition towards a greener and more environmentally friendly mobility landscape.

Failure Analysis of the Half-Shafts Belonging to a Three-Wheeled Electric Vehicle

Failure Analysis of the Half-Shafts Belonging to a Three-Wheeled Electric Vehicle

Optimized designed controlled driver circuit of a three-wheeled electric vehicle and implemented in hardware

Optimized designed controlled driver circuit of a three-wheeled electric vehicle and implemented in hardware

Direct Tilt Controller Design with Disturbance Compensation and Implementation for a Narrow Tilting Electric Vehicle

Three-wheeled electric city vehicles are becoming popular because they have lower cost and enable motorcycle driving feeling with electric powertrain performance. These vehicles need a driver assistant system, also known as an active tilting stability controller, to provide a safe cornering manoeuvre. Active tilt control methods are direct tilt control (DTC), steering tilt control (STC) and a combination of these methods. In this study, DTC system design with a servo motor actuator with simulation and experimental results are presented. State feedback control with pole placement design has been improved with disturbance compensation control. This novel controller structure enhances the response of DTC and enables a faster-tilting response. Simulation results are given up to 10 m/s speed. Experimental results of the developed method are given up to 3.05 m/s (11 km/h) speed on a three-wheeled electric vehicle. The speed control loop of the servo motor drive unit (SMDU) stabilizes the DTC system. In the state of the art, a proportional derivative controller is commonly used as a tilt controller. By including the speed control loop of SMDU in the tilt control system, the use of the derivative term can be eliminated. The stability effect of the speed control loop is shown by MATLAB analysis, simulations in Simulink and experimental step response test as well.

Research on dynamical properties of a three-wheeled electric vehicle from the point of view of driving safety

Abstract Many vehicles in urban and suburban environment are occupied just by one passenger, i.e. by a driver. Therefore, it is worth to think about vehicles, which would be smaller and lighter and which would include environmental-friendly power source. One such vehicle is the presented three-wheeled electric vehicle. This vehicle is designed for one passenger and it is powered by an ecologic electric powertrain. Therefore, it is necessary to research its driving properties. There are two types of vehicle designs, an original design and a modified design with a reworked body. Both are characterised by the symmetrical distribution of the mass to the longitudinal axis. In terms of driving properties of the vehicle, overturning stability during cornering and vertical dynamics in terms of safety are assessed for both original and modified designs. The article presents the main description of the original and modified designs of the three-wheeled vehicle and results from simulation computations focused on analysis of the over-turning stability. It has been revealed that the original vehicle, which is lighter, has better dynamical properties in curves with regards to driving and the higher total weight of the modified vehicle is safer in terms of vertical dynamics.

The Effects of COVID-19 on the Socio-Economic Conditions of Marginal People: A Case Study in the Selected Districts of Bangladesh

In this paper, we have examined the effects of COVID-19 on the socio-economic condition of the three-wheeled electric vehicle drivers in some selected areas of Bangladesh from the cross-sectional data (September–November 2020). The results of linear regression indicate that under COVID-19 conditions, age (p = 0.022) and hardship (p = 0.000) positively, and education (p = 0.036), driving duration (p = 0.023), COVID consciousness (p = 0.086) and easy bike vehicle (p = 0.000) negatively affects income of the respondents. The deaths of COVID in the district (p = 0.003), income (p = 0.000), age (p = 0.037), easy bike vehicle (p = 0.018), debt (p = 0.059) and sufferings of diseases (p = 0.044) positively, and property holdings (p = 0.028), residence in urban areas (p = 0.004) and COVID consciousness (p = 0.082) negatively affect the family expenditure. The results from binary logistics regressions show that diseases sufferings (adjusted p = <0.001; unadjusted p = <0.001), corona fear (unadjusted p = 0.005; adjusted p = <0.001) have positive, and income (unadjusted p = <0.001; adjusted p = <0.001), cooking fuel (unadjusted p = 0.003; adjusted p = 0.091) and easy bike vehicle (unadjusted p = <0.001; adjusted p = 0.288) have negative association with hardship or misery due to COVID-19; death of COVID-19 in the district (unadjusted p = 0.008; adjusted p = 0.037), hardship or misery (adjusted p = 0.005; adjusted p = 0.001), and urban dwelling area (unadjusted p = 0.002; adjusted p = 0.004) have positive, and access to pure drinking water (unadjusted p = 0.005; adjusted p = 0.011) has negative link with corona fear; and, family savings (unadjusted p = 0.001; adjusted p = 0.013), satisfaction in the current job (unadjusted p = <0.001; adjusted p = <0.001), and government medical service (unadjusted p = 0.065; adjusted p = 0.012) have positive affiliation, and household size (unadjusted p = 0.007; adjusted p = 0.020) has negative affiliation with the continuation desire of the current job of respondents. All the obtained results are consistent and have significant policy implications.

Analyzing the Service Quality of E-Trike Operations: A New Sustainable Transportation Infrastructure in Metro Manila, Philippines

The electric tricycle, often known as an e-trike, is a three-wheeled electric vehicle designed to transport a small group of people over short distances on side streets. This study aims to develop a service quality model of sustainable e-trike operations in the city of Manila, Philippines using stepwise regression analysis. A total of 230 participants from three districts in the City of Manila: Binondo, Recto, and Intramuros, were selected using the stratified sampling method. The main contribution of this study emerges from the quantification of the influence of sustainability indicators on the perceived service quality of e-trike passengers. The study identified 10 indicators: PWD accessibility (β = 0.2128), smoothness of the ride (β = 0.1001), noise level (β = 0.0886), discount rate (β = 0.0886), land use (β = 0.0835), comfort load (β = 0.0723), fare acceptability (β = 0.0577), e-trike intensity (β = 0.0420), fare affordability (β = 0.0339), and ease of availability (β = 0.0317) have significant importance in the service quality of e-trike operations. These indicators revealed the areas where improvements are needed to ensure the long-term viability of e-trike operations. Therefore, it is concluded that these factors should be the focus and priority for the improvement of e-trike operators, drivers, and transport groups to attain sustainability of e-trike operation in the country. Moreover, this study can also be used for other public transportations to improve their current service quality and operations.

Development and Experimental Implementation of Active Tilt Control System Using a Servo Motor Actuator for Narrow Tilting Electric Vehicle

Light electric vehicles are alternative solutions to passenger cars in terms their lower costs and space saving in city traffic. Narrow tilting vehicles (NTV), known also as three–wheeled vehicles, can be equipped with an active tilting stability controller that tilts the vehicle automatically during cornering to enable lateral stability. There are mainly direct tilt control (DTC), steering tilt control (STC), and combined DTC–STC methods described in the literature. The DTC method is typically applied up to 10 km/h vehicle speeds. Considering city traffic and frequent start–stop cycles, the DTC method needs to be improved in terms of lower actuator torque and energy consumption. DTC can be designed by using either hydraulic or servo motor actuators. In state of the art, the servo motor actuator has not been studied in detail considering its integration and application aspects. Mostly, the actuator has been considered as a black box model. Proposed control method in this study enables improvements in the direct tilt control system (DTC) in terms of reducing the actuator peak torque and enables the application of DTC at higher vehicle speeds. Regarding the modeling of the electric actuator, a permanent magnet synchronous motor and field-oriented control model are also included in the simulation model. Modelling of the electric actuator enables accurate representation of actuator dynamics. In this way, battery Ah capacity can be sized and energy consumption of the electric actuator can be calculated for a given drive cycle. To this end, objective of this study is to design a direct tilt control method including the electrical drives and motion control concepts. In this way, an application methodology of the servo motor actuator is developed and implemented on a narrow tilting three-wheeled electric vehicle. Interactions between tilt control system and the servo motor actuator system are described from practical aspects.

Modeling, Designing and Controlling of a Three-Wheeled Electric Vehicle

Modeling, Designing and Controlling of a Three-Wheeled Electric Vehicle

Range Extension Control of a Three-Wheel Electric Vehicle Prototype Based on Aggregation and Distribution

Range Extension Control of a Three-Wheel Electric Vehicle Prototype Based on Aggregation and Distribution

Fuel cell-supercapacitor topologies benchmark for a three-wheel electric vehicle powertrain

This paper compares three optimal hybrid energy system configurations, namely full-active, semi-active and passive, for the particular purpose of assessing the viability of utilizing the passive architecture in a three-wheel electric vehicle composed of a fuel cell (FC) and a supercapacitor. In this respect, the characteristics of these configurations are investigated through three steps. Firstly, the mathematical model of each component is developed by employing experimental data. Subsequently, the optimal size of each topology is determined by a two-step optimization approach. This approach is based on the optimized sizing of power sources, employing a metaheuristic optimization algorithm, and optimal power flow sharing between the sources with the aim of satisfying the requested power while declining the fuel consumption and enhancing the system’s lifetime. Finally, the best-achieved size of each architecture is compared in terms of trip cost, capital cost, and the system weight. The obtained results show that passive topology can reduce the trip cost by 14.8% and 6.4% compared to full-active and semi-active ones, respectively. However, the active architecture results in less degradation in the FC compared to the other two topologies. Furthermore, a validation phase is done under a real driving profile and the results are further discussed.

Development and optimization of a three-wheeled electric vehicle frame using structural materials

The aim of this paper is to design a new electrical transportation device using structural materials. It concerns with the idea of a new, safe and ecological way of transportation for people in urban areas. The design consists in developing a three-wheeled electric vehicle frame that can carry loads up to 140Kg, is lightweight and easy to store in closed spaces. The design process consists in developing a 3D model, a physical prototype and the optimization of the frame using CAD software with the finite element method.

삼륜 전기자동차의 전구간 조향 및 속도 영역 통합 제어 전략

삼륜 전기자동차의 전구간 조향 및 속도 영역 통합 제어 전략

Modelling and analysis of gradient effect on the dynamic performance of three-wheeled vehicle system using Simscape

In India, three-wheeled electric vehicles are one of the important modes of public transport in congested areas. The gradient is an important factor that affects the dynamic performance of the vehicle. The proposed work presents an extensive analysis of the gradient effects on the dynamic performance of a three-wheeled solar electric vehicle. Firstly, we have designed the physical vehicle model of three-wheeled using Simscape® environment tool. The generated torque from “ideal torque source” block is transferred to the input drive shaft of the “differential” mechanism. The output drive shafts of “sun gears” or “differential” block are connected to the rear left as well as to the right wheels respectively. The “ideal translational motion sensor” subsystem block measures the speed and distance of the vehicle. Next, to examine the gradient effects and accuracy of the Simscape model, we have designed the longitudinal vehicle model of a three-wheeled electric vehicle. Undertaken a comparative analysis of the Simscape® models’ results from the longitudinal vehicle model for three different road gradient condition having a slope of zero degrees (0°), six degrees (6°) and twelve degrees (12°) respectively.

Investigation of ride properties of a three-wheeled electric vehicle in terms of driving safety

Abstract This article presents process and results of investigation of ride properties of a three-wheeled electric vehicle, which was designed in our workplace. As the key factors of ride properties driving safety and ride comfort for passenger are analysed. Ride comfort for passenger of road vehicles is one of the most important performances of vehicle; the research of automotive passenger ride comfort is getting more and more important. At the same every vehicle has to meet quite strict criteria for driving safety. Process of investigation was carried out using Simpack multibody software package.

Frame modal analysis for an electric three-wheel vehicle

The alternative electric vehicle for delivery (E-Trike) is a developing three-wheel electric vehicle for goods delivery. Small size and its three-wheel mobility are required for flexible manoeuvrability on urban space due to traffic, parking and alley road. In this study, three different Alpha frames (Alpha-0, Alpha-1, and Alpha-2) of E-Trike vehicle are analysed using numerical simulation LS-DYNA. This study is conducted to obtain the modal response E-Trike vehicle. Eigenvalues of dynamics properties are investigated to avoid a resonance on excitation frequency. LS-DYNA implicit simulation used for simulating quadrangular shell element for the surface geometry of the frames. Boundary conditions are applied to the steering and suspension joints represent the real field. The result shows the amplitudes and the natural frequencies of Alpha frames. Bending mode and torsion mode can be determined. Based on the simulation, there is a pattern of vibration modes. Alpha-2 which is the latest version of three configurations has better response on vibration modes. There is about 3% reduction of vibration amplitude at Alpha-2 than Alpha-0 and Alpha-1. Natural frequency response for each mode occurs at similar range. Furthermore, a shifted natural frequency of Alpha-2 combination mode occurs due to addition of the stretched frame.

Energy- and Power-Split Management of Dual Energy Storage System for a Three-Wheel Electric Vehicle

Specific applications such as recreational vehicles require new developments with respect to their energy storage system (ESS). Despite some recent trends in battery development, the ratio between power and energy has not yet met the requirements of these specific kinds of vehicles. This paper presents the integration of a SuperCapacitors (SCs) pack in a three-wheel electric vehicle considering the energy- and power-split management strategy. An energy-management strategy based on a comprehensive fuzzy logic controller approach is fully addressed to increase the global efficiency and performance of the studied vehicle. The proposed control and management strategy ensures that the battery supplies the average portion of the power demand, while the energy level of the SCs is smartly handled. The proposed strategy is easily adaptable to other vehicles or different driving modes. The approach was validated with a power-level hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) platform for a reduced-scale hybrid dual ESS. This experimental test allows real-time verification of the proposed energy management and evaluates the ability to coordinate more efficiently the energy flow. The proposed approach enhances the battery lifetime by reducing the battery current root-mean-square (RMS) value by 12% compared to a battery-only architecture.

삼륜 전기 자동차용 외전형 In-Wheel BLDCM의 개발

Outer rotor type in-wheel Blushless DC Motor(BLDCM) for three-wheeled electric vehicle is researched. In-wheel system is to drive the electric vehicle without mechanical transmission, shaft, differential gears or other mechanical system. The motor is designed considering the performance requirements and drive modes of the vehicle. The determined dimensions as well as the slot and rotor pole are simulated by magnetic and thermal finite element analysis and ansys workbench to analyze the performance and heating of the motor. In order to verify the performance characteristics of the proposed motor, the experiment tests are executed and satisfy well the requirements.

Nonconventional three-wheel electric vehicle for urban mobility

This paper outlines the original solutions adopted for powering a nonconventional three-wheel electric vehicle. This is a lightweight vehicle for use in urban mobility with mission tasks such as 50 km/h cruising speed and 80 km range of autonomy. The propulsion system is based on a lead-acid battery-fed wheel direct drive. This is arranged with a 4.5 kW prototype of a slotless axial-flux permanent magnet machine, which has a total weight of 15 kg and is capable of 85 Nm continuous torque and 120 Nm peak torque over 2 min. The motor is totally enclosed in the single front wheel of the vehicle and fed through an IGBT bidirectional power converter, which allows the control of both motoring and regenerative braking operations. Design characteristics and experimental data taken from the prototype of wheel direct drive are given.