Three-way Repeated Measures ANOVA Research Articles

Patterns of fMRI Activity Dissociate Overlapping Functional Brain Areas that Respond to Biological Motion

Accurate perception of the actions and intentions of other people is essential for successful interactions in a social environment. Several cortical areas that support this process respond selectively in fMRI to static and dynamic displays of human bodies and faces. Here we apply pattern-analysis techniques to arrive at a new understanding of the neural response to biological motion. Functionally defined body-, face-, and motion-selective visual areas all responded significantly to "point-light" human motion. Strikingly, however, only body selectivity was correlated, on a voxel-by-voxel basis, with biological motion selectivity. We conclude that (1) biological motion, through the process of structure-from-motion, engages areas involved in the analysis of the static human form; (2) body-selective regions in posterior fusiform gyrus and posterior inferior temporal sulcus overlap with, but are distinct from, face- and motion-selective regions; (3) the interpretation of region-of-interest findings may be substantially altered when multiple patterns of selectivity are considered.

Comparison of myocardial contrast enhancement via cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in healthy cats and cats with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

To quantify myocardial contrast enhancement (MCE) of the left ventricle (LV) by use of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMRI) in healthy cats and cats with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) and to compare MCE between the 2 groups. 10 healthy cats and 26 Maine Coon cats with moderate to severe HCM but without clinical evidence of congestive heart failure. Anesthetized cats underwent gradient echo CMRI examination. Short-axis images of the LV were acquired before and 7 minutes after IV administration of gadolinium dimeglumine. Regions of interest were manually traced in the quadrants of 5 mid-LV slices acquired at end systole, and the MCE percentage was calculated from summed weight-averaged data from all slices. Doppler tissue imaging echocardiography was performed to measure the early diastolic myocardial velocity (Em) as an index of diastolic function. Three-way repeated-measures ANOVA was used to determine differences in MCE between cats with HCM and healthy cats. Simple linear regression was used to assess whether MCE was correlated with LV mass, LV mass index (LVMI), or Em. A Student t test was used to compare the SDs of the postcontrast myocardial signal intensity between the 2 groups. There was no difference in MCE between cats with HCM and healthy cats. There was no correlation of MCE with LV mass, LVMI, or Em. There was no difference in heterogeneity of signal intensities of LV myocardium between the 2 groups. Contrast-enhancement CMRI was not useful in detecting diffuse myocardial fibrosis in cats with HCM.

Effects Of Two Different Landing Protocols On Evaluating Impact Attenuation In Landing

In impact attenuation studies for landing activities, two protocols are commonly employed to determine landing height: one based on absolute heights and the other based on percent of maximum jump height. However, no studies were conducted on the differences of these two protocols. PURPOSE To compare effects of two different landing protocols on evaluation of impact attenuation during a drop landing activity. METHODS Twelve male subjects (age: 23.5 ± 2.4 yrs) performed five drop landing trials from three heights in two different protocols. Subjects were divided into one of two groups based on their maximum vertical jump height (MVJ): elite (N=4) and non-elite (N=8). The MVJ was used as an index for lower extremity power capacity. All subjects performed five landing trials from heights of 40, 60, and 80 cm in the first protocol (PT1) and from 70%, 100%, and 130% of their MVJ height in the second protocol (PT2). Ground reaction force (GRF, 1080 Hz) and three-dimensional kinematic data (120 Hz, six cameras) were recorded simultaneously. Selected GRF variables were evaluated using a mixed design three-way repeated measures ANOVA (Group × Protocol × Height) with Group as the between-subject factor (p <0.05). RESULTS On average non-elite athletes landed from heights of 28, 40, and 52 cm while elite athletes landed from 39, 55, and 72 cm in PT2. Normalization of GRF variables by body weight (BW) revealed a significant increase in the peak GRF (F2, heel contact) with increased landing heights for both groups. A significant protocol × height interaction was also observed for non-elite athletes for F2. In PT1, the peak increased 54% (2.4 to 3.7 BW) and 43% (2.2 to 3.3 BW) from 40 to 80 cm for non-elite and elite groups, respectively. In PT2, F2 increased 42% (2.3 to 3.2 BW) and 31% (2.6 to 3.4 BW) from 70 to 130% MVJ for non-elite and elite groups, respectively. However, when F2 is normalized by potential energy instead non-elite and elite athletes demonstrated a 23% (6.0 to 4.7 N/J) and a 28% (5.6 to 4.0 N/J) decrease in F2 in PT1, respectively. The decreases were 24% (7.0 to 5.3 N/J) and 30% (5.5 to 3.9 N/J) for these two respective groups in PT2. CONCLUSION The results suggested an increased attenuation of the impact force during landing when the absolute height protocol is used compared to the protocol based on MVJ. The normalization of the impact force by BW seemed to be more appropriate in data analysis than the normalization by potential energy.

Effects Of Two Different Landing Protocols On Evaluating Impact Attenuation In Landing

In impact attenuation studies for landing activities, two protocols are commonly employed to determine landing height: one based on absolute heights and the other based on percent of maximum jump height. However, no studies were conducted on the differences of these two protocols. PURPOSE To compare effects of two different landing protocols on evaluation of impact attenuation during a drop landing activity. METHODS Twelve male subjects (age: 23.5 ± 2.4 yrs) performed five drop landing trials from three heights in two different protocols. Subjects were divided into one of two groups based on their maximum vertical jump height (MVJ): elite (N=4) and non-elite (N=8). The MVJ was used as an index for lower extremity power capacity. All subjects performed five landing trials from heights of 40, 60, and 80 cm in the first protocol (PT1) and from 70%, 100%, and 130% of their MVJ height in the second protocol (PT2). Ground reaction force (GRF, 1080 Hz) and three-dimensional kinematic data (120 Hz, six cameras) were recorded simultaneously. Selected GRF variables were evaluated using a mixed design three-way repeated measures ANOVA (Group × Protocol × Height) with Group as the between-subject factor (p <0.05). RESULTS On average non-elite athletes landed from heights of 28, 40, and 52 cm while elite athletes landed from 39, 55, and 72 cm in PT2. Normalization of GRF variables by body weight (BW) revealed a significant increase in the peak GRF (F2, heel contact) with increased landing heights for both groups. A significant protocol × height interaction was also observed for non-elite athletes for F2. In PT1, the peak increased 54% (2.4 to 3.7 BW) and 43% (2.2 to 3.3 BW) from 40 to 80 cm for non-elite and elite groups, respectively. In PT2, F2 increased 42% (2.3 to 3.2 BW) and 31% (2.6 to 3.4 BW) from 70 to 130% MVJ for non-elite and elite groups, respectively. However, when F2 is normalized by potential energy instead non-elite and elite athletes demonstrated a 23% (6.0 to 4.7 N/J) and a 28% (5.6 to 4.0 N/J) decrease in F2 in PT1, respectively. The decreases were 24% (7.0 to 5.3 N/J) and 30% (5.5 to 3.9 N/J) for these two respective groups in PT2. CONCLUSION The results suggested an increased attenuation of the impact force during landing when the absolute height protocol is used compared to the protocol based on MVJ. The normalization of the impact force by BW seemed to be more appropriate in data analysis than the normalization by potential energy.

Effect of smear layer thickness and acidity of self-etching solutions on early and long-term bond strength to dentin

To evaluate the effect of smear layer thickness (SL) on early and 6-month bond strength (BS) of self-etching adhesives to dentin and to measure the ultimate microtensile strength (UTS) of the adhesives. Clearfil SE Bond; Optibond Solo Plus Self-Etch Primer; Tyrian Self Priming Etchant (TY) and as controls, Single Bond (SB) and Scotchbond Multi-Purpose Plus (SBMP) were applied on flat superficial dentin surface with thick and thin SL thicknesses. After adhesive's application (n=6) a resin build-up was made. After 24h, resin-dentin beams (0.8mm(2)) were prepared to be tested immediately and after 6-month (6M) at 0.5mm/min. For the UTS measurement, hour-glass specimens were prepared with the bonding resin alone or after mixing (1:1). BS values were analyzed by three-way repeated measures ANOVA and Tukey's multiple comparison tests. Two-way ANOVA (bonding resin and bonding resin+self-etching primer) and Tukey's test were used for the UTS values. The bonding resins were re-evaluated separately by a one-way ANOVA and Tukey's test, since Single Bond is a one-bottle adhesive (alpha=0.05). The SL thickness was not significant (p=0.64). BS values were reduced after 6M, except for the SBMP. TY provided the lowest BS mean while SB and SBMP the highest BS. The UTS of the SBMP was the highest. TY yielded the lowest UTS. Regression analysis revealed a linear and significant relationship between the UTS of self-etch systems and the mean BS (R=0.95, p=0.02). The performance of a self-etching system does not seem to be dependent on the SL thickness. The total-etch, three-step system provided the highest BS to dentin and maintained the BS stable over 6 months. The performance of the self-etching systems can be envisaged by their UTS.

Loading response following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction during the parallel squat exercise

Objective. To determine if individuals 1.5–15 months post-anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction demonstrated an equal loading response on their involved and uninvolved lower extremity during a parallel squat exercise versus a control group. Design. Four-group repeated measures design with one between-subject factor (time post-anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction) and two within-subject factors (knee angle and added weight). Background. It has been a clinical observation that post-anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction, individuals do not place equal amounts of weight upon each lower extremity during double-leg exercises. Methods. Twenty-four subjects were in each of the experimental groups, 1.5–4 months, 6–7 months, and 12–15 months post-anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction, while 24 subjects without history of lower extremity pathology/injury served as the control group. Pedar TM in-shoe sensors were placed inside the subjects' shoes to record loading response patterns during the exercises. All performed 3 sets of 9 randomized squats to each of the three knee flexion angles (30°, 60°, and 90°) with the three different weights (20.45 kg bar only, 35%, and 50% body mass) using a Smith squat rack TM. A three-way repeated measures anova ( P<0.050) was used to compare the differences between groups in loading response statically between the uninvolved and involved lower extremity for each of the different weights at each knee flexion angle during the squat exercise. Results. The three-way repeated measures anova revealed that there was a significant group effect ( P<0.001). Thus, the amount of time post-anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction affected the difference in the subjects' loading response for the uninvolved and involved lower extremities. There was also a three-way interaction, indicating that the difference in loading response was dependent on the group, amount of knee flexion, and amount of added weight ( P=0.010). Conclusion. These data suggest that subjects significantly load their uninvolved lower extremity until 12–15 months post-anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Relevance Based on the results of this study, caution may be warranted when adding resistance during the parallel squat for an individual's first year post-anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction, particularly with less knee flexion to avoid compensation and injury.

Verbal and Operant Responses of Young Children to Vocal versus Instrumental Song Performances

The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of the presence or absence of lyrics in children s musical selections on two types of young children's responses to music. Of additional interest were differences in responses due to subjects' ages and genders. Two studies were designed to compare responses to recorded lullabies with the melodies performed either by a woman singing the lyrics or by a solo instrument. In Study 1, a pictographic rating scale was used to obtain like-dislike responses to 10 music excerpts from 40 children, ages 4 and 5 years. Results of a three-way repeated-measures ANOVA indicated no significant differences due to the main effects of performance medium, age, or gender, with no significant interactions. Subjects for Study 2 were 51 preschool and kindergarten children. Each child individually listened to two pieces with lyrics and two without lyrics for as long as he or she chose, up to the compute duration of each piece. Time spent listening was recorded to the nearest second. Results of a three-way repeated-measures ANOVA indicated no significant differences due to the main effects of performance medium or song although girls did listen significantly longer than boys did. The results of both studies are consistent with the results of previous research indicating that young children s music attitudes and preferences do not seem to be based on specific musical characteristics and that children may have very idiosyncratic responses and listening styles. The use of time spent listening as a dependent measure for music preference is called into question.

A field study on braking responses during driving. II. Minimum driver braking times

The minimum total braking time (i.e. the braking reaction time plus the accelerator-to-brake movement time) plays an important role in defining a minimum following gap (MFG). This study was designed to obtain a lower limit for this gap. Total braking times (TBT) of a group of 51 male and female young athletes were monitored during real driving conditions. Sudden braking applied by a leading private passenger vehicle initiated the trials. A within-subject design was used to study the effects of different factors on braking time. Individuals performed a series of semi-counterbalanced trials at two following distances (6 and 12 m), two speeds (60 and 80 km/h) and three expectancy stages (naive driving, partial knowledge, and full knowledge of the forthcoming manoeuvre). A three-way repeated measures ANOVA showed no major effects of ‘speed’, but major effects of the ‘expectancy’ and the ‘distance’ factors. The experiment yielded a mean TBT of 0·678 s (SD = 0·144 s) for trials averaged over distances and speed...

Influence of training on sleeping heart rate following daytime exercise.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the influence of daytime exercise on heart rate during sleep. Nine, untrained male college students volunteered to participate. They cycled at 75% maximum oxygen uptake, (VO2max) 30 min.day-1 for 12 weeks. The exercise duration was increased by 5 min every 4 weeks from 30 to 40 min per session. Post-training VO2max [mean (SE): 48.9 (1.7) ml.kg-1.min-1] values were significantly (P < 0.01) higher than pre-training [45.5 (1.8) ml.kg-1.min-1] values. Before and after training, sleeping heart rate was assessed on two separate nights. Data were obtained during a night following 30 min of daytime cycling at 75 (6) % VO2max and on a night in which no daytime exercise was performed. A three-way repeated measures ANOVA [training status (pre-/post-training) x activity (exercise day/nonexercise day) x sleep time (18 epochs of 20 min each)] revealed a significant main effect for sleep time (P < 0.001) as well as a sleep time x training status interaction (P < 0.02). No significant difference in sleeping heart rate was noted when exercise and non-exercise days were compared both before and after training. It is concluded that endurance training in these young adult men: (1) hastens the achievement of baseline heart rate during sleep, and (2) does not moderate the relationship between an acute bout of daytime exercise and sleeping heart rate.

Affective Expression in Normal and Physically Handicapped Infants: Situational and Developmental Effects

Studies of physically handicapped school-aged children report social passivity, inhibition and affective dampening. This paper examines the expression of positive and negative affect in both healthy and physically handicapped infants ( N = 14 in each group). Handicapped infants had a variety of orthopedic and facial malformations not usually associated with mental retardation. Infants were seen longitudinally at 12, 18 and 24 months, as they interacted in a variety of semistructured situations with their mothers, alone, and with a stranger. Half-hour videotape records were examined, for each child, for the overt expression of positive and negative affect during each 10-second coding interval. A three-way Repeated Measures ANOVA (Group by Situation by Age) revealed that the expression of positive emotion varied systematically across situation for both groups of toddlers. Handicapped infants, across their second year, were increasingly unwilling to engage a stranger in a positive affective exchange. Handicapped infants also showed a delay, relative to normals, in their ability to control expression of distress during maternal separation. In other words, diminished sociability in physically handicapped children occurs earlier than has previously been reported. Possible contributors are discussed.

Estimation of Theophylline Clearance During Intravenous Aminophylline Infusions

The utility of predicting theophylline clearance (CL) from two serum concentrations obtained during continuous intravenous aminophylline infusion was examined in 16 stable, adult patients. Blood for theophylline measurement was obtained 0, 6, and 12h after starting infusions and, thereafter, at 12-h intervals. EMIT was used to assay samples in multiple runs as they were obtained. Later, each sample was reassayed by EMIT within a single run. Bayesian least-squares regression and the algebraic method of Chiou were used to predict CL using the 0,6 and 0,12h concentrations. "Actual” CL was measured by nonlinear least-squares regression of all concentrations obtained during prolonged infusions. Prediction bias and precision were assessed by calculating mean percent error (PCE) and mean absolute percent error (APCE), respectively. A three-way repeated-measures ANOVA was used to examine the effect of the method of CL prediction, assay procedure, and time interval between samples on PCE and APCE. Bayesian predictions were less biased and slightly more precise than Chiou predictions. The assay procedure had no effect on bias but precision was improved using a single-assay run. Predictions were less biased and more precise with 0,12h versus 0,6h data. Serum samples for theophylline measurement should be obtained after initiating constant intravenous aminophylline and again 8–12h later in stable, adult patients. Prediction of CL with either of the concentration-based methods studied will then allow safe and rapid adjustment of dosage to achieve therapeutic serum concentrations.