Three-dimensional Imaging System Research Articles

A multi-mass and multi-hit two-camera 3D ion momentum imaging system.

We demonstrate an improved two-camera system for multi-mass and multi-hit three-dimensional (3D) momentum imaging of ions. The imaging system employs two conventional complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor cameras. We have shown previously that the system can time slice ion Newton spheres with a time resolution of 8.8ns, limited by camera timing jitter [J. Chem. Phys., 158, 191104 (2023)]. In this work, a jitter correction method was developed to suppress the camera jitter and improve the time resolution to better than 2ns. With this resolution, full 3D momentum distributions of ions can be obtained. We further show that this method can detect two ions with different masses when utilizing both the rising and falling edges of the cameras.

Facial tightening using a novel vacuum-assisted microneedle fractional radiofrequency system: A prospective, randomized, split-face study.

The microneedle fractional radiofrequency system (MFRS) is able to rejuvenate facial appearance by heating and coagulating certain depth of skin tissue. To evaluate the safety and efficacy of a novel vacuum-assisted MFRS for facial contour tightening. This prospective, randomized, split-face study included 21 patients who underwent three treatments with a vacuum-assisted MFRS at 1-month intervals. Half of the face was treated with the MFRS; the other half was untreated (control). Facial volume changes and wrinkles were objectively measured using a three-dimensional imaging system and VISIA-CR. Volume changes of the treated midface were -0.24 ± 0.75, -0.59 ± 0.92, and -0.55 ± 0.65 mL at 1, 3, 6 months follow-up; however, measurements of the control side were 0.08 ± 0.70, -0.08 ± 0.53, and - 0.10 ± 0.86 mL, indicating significant reductions (p < 0.05). The number of facial wrinkles on the treated side was significantly reduced to 12.44 ± 4.85 at 3 months and sustained at 6 months (11.11 ± 4.100) compared to the control side (14.89 ± 5.26 and 13.22 ± 4.44, respectively; p < 0.05). No long-term side effects occurred. The vacuum-assisted MFRS is safe and effective and is recommended for improving facial tightening and reducing wrinkles. This technology is sufficient to ensure the insertion depth, thus helping to improve the treatment accuracy and safety. The MFRS provides sustained effects for at least 6 months.

Dual-Frequency Lidar for Compressed Sensing 3D Imaging Based on All-Phase Fast Fourier Transform

Lidar, with its advantages of high measurement accuracy, fine angular resolution, and strong anti-interference capability, plays a pivotal role in the field of scene depth information acquisition. Traditional approaches to achieving lateral spatial resolution in imaging include raster scanning and array detectors. The former necessitates frequent scanning to acquire depth maps, resulting in time consumption and instability. The latter encounters challenges such as high dark count rates, pixel crosstalk, and excessive costs for obtaining high-resolution images using array detectors. The introduction of compressed sensing (CS) offers a novel perspective on realizing non-scanning three-dimensional imaging. In this context, we propose a novel three-dimensional imaging system that combines CS with coherent dual-frequency continuous-wave lidar and utilizes the all-phase fast Fourier transform to extract both amplitude and phase information. This system requires only M measurements, and through a reconstruction algorithm, it achieves the inversion of depth information for N-pixel scenes (M &lt;&lt; N). Integrating cost-effective components such as digital micromirrors and single-point detectors, this affordable system accomplishes three-dimensional imaging of a single target. Notably, it significantly reduces the required number of measurements while concurrently ensuring enhanced eye safety and signal-to-noise ratio.

Отдаленные результаты использования системы трехмерной визуализации в сравнении со стандартной аналоговой визуализацией в хирургии хрусталика

Abstract Long-term results of using a three-dimensional imaging system in comparison with standard analog imaging in lens surgery A.V. Zhuravlev, V.S. Stebnev, S.D. Stebnev, I.V. Malov, L.M. Nizamutdinova Samara State Medical University, Department of Eye Diseases, Department of Eye Diseases IPO, Samara, Russian Federation Eye Surgery LLC, Samara, Russian Federation Purpose. Assessment of the safety and effectiveness of lens surgery using three-dimensional visualization based on the analysis of long-term results of operations. Material and methods. The study involved 500 patients (500 eyes). The main group consisted of 250 patients with cataracts operated by phacoemulsification using the NGENUITY three-dimensional digital imaging system. The control group consisted of 250 patients using analog imaging, i.e. using standard eyepieces. Long-term results were evaluated 3, 6 and 12 months after surgery using parameters such as uncorrected and maximally corrected visual acuity, refractometry indicators and corneal endothelial cell density. Results. Although in the long-term period we did not record statistically significant differences between the achieved indicators of visual acuity, refractometry and density of corneal endothelial cells in the main and control groups, their average values were still slightly higher in the group of patients where three-dimensional digital imaging was used in the FEC process. Conclusion. The long-term results of a comparative study of visual acuity, endothelial cell density, spherical and cylindrical components of refraction when using analog and three-dimensional digital imaging in cataract surgery allow us to conclude that the latter method is still more effective than the standard one. All this, combined with great ergonomic capabilities, makes it possible to recommend three-dimensional digital visualization for wider dissemination in clinical practice. Key words:cataract surgery, three-dimensional digital visualization, standard analog visualization, visual acuity, refraction, density of endothelial cells

Three-dimensional imaging of the forearm and hand: A comparison between two 3D imaging systems.

The conventional treatment for distal radius fractures typically involves immobilization of the injured extremity using a conventional forearm cast. These casts do cause all sorts of discomfort during wear and impose life-style restrictions on the wearer. Personalized 3D printed splints, designed using three-dimensional (3D) imaging systems, might overcome these problems. To obtain a patient specific splint, commercially available 3D camera systems are utilized to capture patient extremities, generating 3D models for splint design. This study investigates the feasibility of utilizing a new camera system (SPENTYS) to capture 3D surface scans of the forearm for the design of 3D printed splints. In a prospective observational cohort study involving 17 healthy participants, we conducted repeated 3D imaging using both the new (SPENTYS) and a reference system (3dMD) to assess intersystem accuracy and repeatability. The intersystem accuracy of the SPENTYS system was determined by comparison of the 3D surface scans with the reference system (3dMD). Comparison of consecutive images acquired per device determined the repeatability. Feasibility was measured with system usability score questionnaires distributed among professionals. The mean absolute difference between the two systems was 0.44 mm (SD:0.25). The mean absolute difference of the repeatability of the reference -and the SPENTYS system was respectively 0.40 mm (SD: 0.30) and 0.53 mm (SD: 0.25). Both repeatability and intersystem differences were within the self-reported 1 mm. The workflow was considered easy and effective, emphasizing the potential of this approach within a workflow to obtain patient specific splint.

Functional Acetabular Component Positioning During Direct Anterior Approach Hip Arthroplasty Using a Novel Three-Dimensional Virtual Mesh Imaging System With Fluoroscopy

BackgroundOptimal position of total hip arthroplasty (THA) components is critical for joint mechanics and stability. Acetabular component positioning during supine surgery in direct anterior approach (DAA) THA may be different in the standing position postoperatively, which traditional fluoroscopy is unable to predict. A novel 3-dimensional (3D) image analysis technology (IAT) that uses artificial intelligence to measure the tilt and rotation of the pelvis has enabled prediction of component positioning from supine to standing. The purpose of this study was to compare intraoperative fluoroscopy, non–3D-IAT, and 3D-IAT with postoperative standing radiographs to assess the accuracy of component positioning. MethodsFrom 2022 to 2023, 30 consecutive patients (86.6% women, mean age 59 [range, 55 to 67]) undergoing primary DAA THA with the use of the 3D-IAT were identified. A separate cohort of 148 patients from 2020 to 2021 (85% women, mean age 65 [range, 55 to 69]) who underwent DAA THA with non–3D-IAT was used for comparison. Leg length discrepancy (LLD), cup anteversion, and inclination were manually measured on intraoperative fluoroscopic images and digitally measured using IAT. Follow-up evaluation occurred at 1 month with standing pelvis radiographs measured using Ein Bild Röntgen Analyze–Cup software. Measurements were compared via Wilcoxon signed rank tests where P ≤ .05 indicates significantly different measurements. ResultsMedian LLD, inclination, and anteversion measurements via non–3D-IAT and fluoroscopy were significantly different compared to postoperative standing radiographs (P < .001). The 3D-IAT more accurately predicted LLD, abduction, and anteversion, with values not significantly different from postoperative standing measurements (P = .23, P = .93, and P = .36, respectively). ConclusionsThe use of the 3D-IAT during DAA THA allowed for the more accurate prediction of acetabular component position in the standing position postoperatively.

Sub-Bin Delayed High-Range Accuracy Photon-Counting 3D Imaging

The range accuracy of single-photon-array three-dimensional (3D) imaging systems is limited by the time resolution of the array detectors. We introduce a method for achieving super-resolution in 3D imaging through sub-bin delayed scanning acquisition and fusion. Its central concept involves the generation of multiple sub-bin difference histograms through sub-bin shifting. Then, these coarse time-resolution histograms are fused with multiplied averages to produce finely time-resolved detailed histograms. Finally, the arrival times of the reflected photons with sub-bin resolution are extracted from the resulting fused high-time-resolution count distribution. Compared with the sub-delayed with the fusion method added, the proposed method performs better in reducing the broadening error caused by coarsened discrete sampling and background noise error. The effectiveness of the proposed method is examined at different target distances, pulse widths, and sub-bin scales. The simulation analytical results indicate that small-scale sub-bin delays contribute to superior reconstruction outcomes for the proposed method. Specifically, implementing a sub-bin temporal resolution delay of a factor of 0.1 for a 100 ps echo pulse width substantially reduces the system ranging error by three orders of magnitude. Furthermore, Monte Carlo simulations allow to describe a low signal-to-background noise ratio (0.05) characterised by sparsely reflected photons. The proposed method demonstrates a commendable capability to simultaneously achieve wide-ranging super-resolution and denoising. This is evidenced by the detailed depth distribution information and substantial reduction of 95.60% in the mean absolute error of the reconstruction results, confirming the effectiveness of the proposed method in noisy scenarios.

Frontiers in Three-Dimensional Surface Imaging Systems for 3D Face Acquisition in Craniofacial Research and Practice: An Updated Literature Review.

Digitalizing all aspects of dental care is a contemporary approach to ensuring the best possible clinical outcomes. Ongoing advancements in 3D face acquisition have been driven by continuous research on craniofacial structures and treatment effects. An array of 3D surface-imaging systems are currently available for generating photorealistic 3D facial images. However, choosing a purpose-specific system is challenging for clinicians due to variations in accuracy, reliability, resolution, and portability. Therefore, this review aims to provide clinicians and researchers with an overview of currently used or potential 3D surface imaging technologies and systems for 3D face acquisition in craniofacial research and daily practice. Through a comprehensive literature search, 71 articles meeting the inclusion criteria were included in the qualitative analysis, investigating the hardware, software, and operational aspects of these systems. The review offers updated information on 3D surface imaging technologies and systems to guide clinicians in selecting an optimal 3D face acquisition system. While some of these systems have already been implemented in clinical settings, others hold promise. Furthermore, driven by technological advances, novel devices will become cost-effective and portable, and will also enable accurate quantitative assessments, rapid treatment simulations, and improved outcomes.

Subcutaneous injection of hyaluronic acid leading to emboliom and recanalization process monitored in real time by three-dimensional photoacoustic imaging

This study describes a method for real-time examination of the microvascular system based on the three-dimensional photoacoustic imaging system to prevent arterial complications, especially vascular embolism, during hyaluronic acid (HA) injections. Chicken embryos were used to simulate the superficial blood vessels of human skin, and then the target area was imaged by the photoacoustic imaging system for three-dimensional vascular imaging, and then the syringe and blood vessels were monitored, and the syringe angle and penetration depth were adjusted in time using an injection device to avoid puncturing the arterial vasculature and clogging the blood vessels. HA was then injected into smaller vessels on the dorsum of the tongue in mice and into thicker vessels on the dorsal portion of the tongue in rats to mimic embolization, and the post-operative recovery was reflected by the changes in the pixel dots of the extracted part of the blocked blood vessels, and it was observed that the blood flow in the area of the fine vessels was restored in about 3 days, whereas blood flow in the area of the large vessels was restored in only about 1 h. The method presented in this paper allows precise guidance of injectable filler HA, which has good application prospects in improving the safety of injection micro-plastic surgery and reducing the experience requirements for medical personnel.

Equations for smartphone prediction of adiposity and appendicular lean mass in youth soccer players

Digital anthropometry by three-dimensional optical imaging systems and smartphones has recently been shown to provide non-invasive, precise, and accurate anthropometric and body composition measurements. To our knowledge, no previous study performed smartphone-based digital anthropometric assessments in young athletes. The aim of this study was to investigate the reproducibly and validity of smartphone-based estimation of anthropometric and body composition parameters in youth soccer players. A convenience sample of 124 male players and 69 female players (median ages of 16.2 and 15.5 years, respectively) was recruited. Measurements of body weight and height, one whole-body Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA) scan, and acquisition of optical images (performed in duplicate by the Mobile Fit app to obtain two avatars for each player) were performed. The reproducibility analysis showed percent standard error of measurement values < 10% for all anthropometric and body composition measurements, thus indicating high agreement between the measurements obtained for the two avatars. Mobile Fit app overestimated the body fat percentage with respect to DXA (average overestimation of + 3.7% in males and + 4.6% in females), while it underestimated the total lean mass (− 2.6 kg in males and − 2.5 kg in females) and the appendicular lean mass (− 10.5 kg in males and − 5.5 kg in females). Using data of the soccer players, we reparameterized the equations previously proposed to estimate the body fat percentage and the appendicular lean mass and we obtained new equations that can be used in youth athletes for body composition assessment through conventional anthropometrics-based prediction models.

Modified Model of Polarized Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function Used for Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)

In order to analyze the performance of a light detection and ranging system based on polarization modulation, it is necessary to theoretically analyze and model the polarization scattering characteristics of common target materials. In this paper, the shortcomings of the classical Hyde pBRDF (polarization bidirectional reflectance distribution function) model are analyzed. Based on the research results of many researchers in recent years, a new six-parameter pBRDF model is proposed. To verify the accuracy of the proposed model, this paper builds a measurement system for the polarization scattering characteristics of the target surface in the laser active imaging scene, and the polarization scattering characteristics of two common materials, namely a white paint coating and an aluminum plate, are measured. Based on the measurement results of the DOP (degree of polarization) of the scattered light of the target material and the BBO-FA (biogeography-based optimization-Firefly algorithm) algorithm, we performed inversion calculations on the key parameters of the target material. Using the parameters of the target material obtained via inversion, we use the model to simulate the Stokes vectors of the target and compare the simulated values of Stokes vectors with the measured values to verify the accuracy of the model. The verification results show that the simulation results of Stokes vectors are in good agreement with the measurement results for these two materials, and the introduction of various improvements to the model can effectively improve the accuracy of the model, which provides a tool for studying the performance parameters of a laser three-dimensional imaging system based on polarization modulation.

Review of Three-Dimensional Handheld Photoacoustic and Ultrasound Imaging Systems and Their Applications.

Photoacoustic (PA) imaging is a non-invasive biomedical imaging technique that combines the benefits of optics and acoustics to provide high-resolution structural and functional information. This review highlights the emergence of three-dimensional handheld PA imaging systems as a promising approach for various biomedical applications. These systems are classified into four techniques: direct imaging with 2D ultrasound (US) arrays, mechanical-scanning-based imaging with 1D US arrays, mirror-scanning-based imaging, and freehand-scanning-based imaging. A comprehensive overview of recent research in each imaging technique is provided, and potential solutions for system limitations are discussed. This review will serve as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners interested in advancements and opportunities in three-dimensional handheld PA imaging technology.

Experimental study on the effect of the sawtooth nozzle structure on bubble behaviors

The initial formation of bubbles has a significant impact on bubble dynamics and acoustics. Meanwhile, the bubble initial shape is affected by the nozzle boundary. In this study, the processes of bubble generated from sawtooth nozzles have been investigated by means of controlled experiments. A three-dimensional visualization imaging system is used to study bubble behaviors. The morphology and the time-frequency spectrum of the sound pressure signal are analyzed synchronously. Moreover, the effects on bubble trajectory are also studied. Results show that sawtooth nozzle is not conducive to bubble detachment, resulting in larger bubble diameters than the circular nozzle. With the gas flow rate increasing, bubble diameter increases. When the gas flow rate reaches a certain critical value, the surface tension is not sufficient to support the continued development of bubble size. Due to effect of the sawtooth structure, bubbles tend to break in the necking stage, accompanying by small bubbles. The generation of accompanying bubbles lead to the irregular generation of nearby bubbles. This study aims to reveal the effect of sawtooth nozzle structure on the initial formation of bubbles, so as to predict the flow patterns and sound signal characteristics of the bubbles.

High-resolution multi-spectral snapshot 3D imaging with a SPAD array camera.

Currently, mainstream light detection and ranging (LiDAR) systems usually involve a mechanical scanner component, which enables large-scale, high-resolution and multi-spectral imaging, but is difficult to assemble and has a larger system size. Furthermore, the mechanical wear on the moving parts of the scanner reduces its usage lifetime. Here, we propose a high-resolution scan-less multi-spectral three-dimensional (3D) imaging system, which improves the resolution with a four-times increase in the pixel number and can achieve multi-spectral imaging in a single snapshot. This system utilizes a specially designed multiple field-of-view (multi-FOV) system to separate four-wavelength echoes carrying depth and spectral reflectance information with predetermined temporal intervals, such that one single pixel of the SPAD array can sample four adjacent positions through the four channels' FOVs with subpixel offset. The positions and reflectivity are thus mapped to wavelengths in different time-bins. Our results show that the system can achieve high-resolution multi-spectral 3D imaging in a single exposure without scanning component. This scheme is the first to realize scan-less single-exposure high-resolution and multi-spectral imaging with a SPAD array sensor.

Calibration method for a multi-focus microscopic 3D imaging system.

This Letter presents a novel, to the best of our knowledge, method to calibrate multi-focus microscopic structured-light three-dimensional (3D) imaging systems with an electrically adjustable camera focal length. We first leverage the conventional method to calibrate the system with a reference focal length f0. Then we calibrate the system with other discrete focal lengths fi by determining virtual features on a reconstructed white plane using f0. Finally, we fit the polynomial function model using the discrete calibration results for fi. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed method can calibrate the system consistently and accurately.

Dynamics of bubbles detached from non-circular orifices: Confinement effect of orifice boundary

In practice, gas usually escapes from non-circular orifices due to machining accuracy, plugging, and other reasons, especially gas leakage in the natural environment. Compared to circular orifices, the bubble behavior and dynamics of non-circular orifices have rarely been investigated. This paper presents three-dimensional imaging system results to obtain comprehensive information on bubble dynamics generated from five elliptical orifices with equal cross-sectional areas and different aspect ratios. Computational fluid dynamics studies using the coupled level set and volume of fluid methods were adopted to assist in the flow field analysis. Experimental data were analyzed statistically to study the effects of orifice wall structure on bubble flow pattern, size, trajectory, and other dynamic parameters. The results show that the equivalent bubble diameter increases with increasing orifice aspect ratio, as does the randomness of the bubble flow field, while the bubble flow pattern complexity increases. A force analysis as the bubble is generated is also conducted. The wall structure of the orifice affects the bubble migration effect to some extent. The work presented in this article provides valuable fundamental information for a range of heater and desalination applications in chemical engineering, wastewater treatment, and immersion leakage identification.

Realization of NIR-II 3D whole-body contour and tumor blood vessels imaging in small animals using rotational stereo vision technique.

Optical imaging in the second near-infrared (NIR-II, 1000 to 1700nm) region is capable of deep tumor vascular imaging due to low light scattering and low autofluorescence. Non-invasive real-time NIR-II fluorescence imaging is instrumental in monitoring tumor status. Our aim is to develop an NIR-II fluorescence rotational stereo imaging system for 360-deg three-dimensional (3D) imaging of whole-body blood vessels, tumor vessels, and 3D contour of mice. Our study combined an NIR-II camera with a 360-deg rotational stereovision technique for tumor vascular imaging and 3D surface contour for mice. Moreover, self-made NIR-II fluorescent polymer dots were applied in high-contrast NIR-II vascular imaging, along with a 3D blood vessel enhancement algorithm for acquiring high-resolution 3D blood vessel images. The system was validated with a custom-made 3D printing phantom and in vivo experiments of 4T1 tumor-bearing mice. The results showed that the NIR-II 3D 360-deg tumor blood vessels and mice contour could be reconstructed with 0.15mm spatial resolution, 0.3mm depth resolution, and 5mm imaging depth in an ex vivo experiment. The pioneering development of an NIR-II 3D 360-deg rotational stereo imaging system was first applied in small animal tumor blood vessel imaging and 3D surface contour imaging, demonstrating its capability of reconstructing tumor blood vessels and mice contour. Therefore, the 3D imaging system can be instrumental in monitoring tumor therapy effects.

Evaluation of the Portable Next-Generation VECTRA H2 3D Imaging System for Measuring Upper Eyelid Area and Volume.

Although a portable 3-dimensional (3D) imaging system has been used for periocular measurement analysis, this system has yet to be tested and validated for periocular area and volume measurements. The aim of this study was to define the upper eyelid and upper eyelid fold region through a modified landmark strategy and validate a portable 3D imaging system for area and volume measurements in this periocular region. Eighty-one healthy adult Caucasians underwent 3D facial imaging with the VECTRA M3 (static) and VECTRA H2 (portable) 3D imaging systems (Canfield Scientific, Inc., Parsippany, NJ). Subsequently, the upper eyelid and upper eyelid fold regions were selected according to a modified landmark localization strategy. Direct measurements of area and volume were performed to assess intrarater, interrater, intramethod, and intermethod reliability, and to compare the agreement between the 2 devices. The VECTRA M3 and H2 showed high reliability on upper eyelid area measurements. Excellent intra-, inter-, and intramethod reliability agreements were observed in intraclass correlation coefficient; very good agreement in intrarater reliability was observed in the relative error of measurement (REM) and relative technical error of measurement (rTEM); and good inter- and intramethod reliability were observed in the REM and rTEM. For area measurement of the upper eyelid fold, the intrarater, interrater, and intramethod reliability of the M3 was lower than that of the H2. Both systems had poor intrarater, interrater, and intramethod reliability for volume measurements in the upper eyelid and upper eyelid fold region. This new portable 3D imaging system achieved excellent or very good reliability values for standardized direct measurements of the upper eyelid and upper eyelid fold region, although volume measurements seem less reliable.

Introduction and validation of an automatic and low-cost three-dimensional facial imaging system: a comparison to direct anthropometry and Vectra H1.

Three-dimensional (3D) imaging is a powerful tool for the analysis of soft tissue morphology. 3D photogrammetry outperforms conventional photogrammetric methods and gains popularity among plastic surgeons. However, commercial 3D imaging systems bundled with analytical software are costly. This study intends to introduce and validate an automatic, low-cost, and user-friendly 3D facial scanner. An automatic and low-cost 3D facial scanning system was developed. The system consisted of a 3D facial scanner running automatically on a sliding track and a 3D data processing tool. Fifteen human subjects underwent 3D facial imaging by the novel scanner. Eighteen anthropometric parameters were measured on the 3D virtual models and compared with caliper measurements (the gold standard). Further, the novel 3D scanner was compared to the commonly used commercial 3D facial scanner Vectra H1. Heat map analysis was used to evaluate the deviation between the 3D models obtained by the two imaging systems. The 3D photogrammetric results were highly correlated with the direct measurement results (P<0.001). The mean absolute differences (MADs) were less than 2 mm. Bland-Altman analysis indicated that, for 17 of the 18 parameters, the largest differences within the 95% limits of agreement margin were within the 2.0 mm clinical acceptance. Heat map analysis showed the average distance between the 3D virtual models was 0.15 mm, with a root mean square of 0.71 mm. The novel 3D facial scanning system is proven to be highly reliable. It provides a good alternative to commercial 3D facial scanners.

Large depth-of-field microscopic structured-light 3D imaging with focus stacking

State-of-the-art microscopic structured-light (SL) three-dimensional (3D) imaging systems typically use conventional lenses with a fixed focal length achieving a limited depth of field (DOF). This paper proposes to drastically increase the DOF of the microscopic 3D imaging by leveraging the focus stacking technique and developing a novel computational framework. We first capture fringe images with various camera focal lengths using an electrically tunable lens (ETL) and align the recovered phase maps using phase constraints. Then, we extract the focused pixel phase using fringe contrast and stitch them into an all-in-focus phase map via energy minimization. Finally, we reconstruct the 3D shape using the all-in-focus phase map. Experimental results demonstrate that our proposed method can achieve a large DOF of approximately 2 mm and field of view (FOV) of approximately 4 mm × 3 mm with a pixel size at the object space of approximately 2.6 μm. The achieved DOF is approximately 10 × the DOF of the system without the proposed method.