Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors Research Articles

Mechanical and thermal properties of Gyroid-based W[sbnd]Cu composites produced via laser powder bed fusion assisted by infiltration

Plasma-facing components for thermonuclear fusion reactors require the introduction of new materials due to outstanding demands in mechanical, thermal, and thermal cycle fatigue resistivity properties. One promising solution is the WCu composite material or multimaterial that combines the properties of both components. In the present work, WCu samples were obtained by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) consolidation of a tungsten porous matrix followed by copper infiltration. A design of structures with ordered porosity was achieved by translation of skeletal gyroid unit cell (triply periodic minimal surface). A relative density of 96.7% was achieved for solid pure tungsten samples with optimized LPBF process conditions. As-built W gyroid samples had a 15–20% ultimate compressive strength (UCS) of the solid sample. After the infiltration with copper, the ductility of WCu composites increased drastically, i.e. the samples did not fracture at a strain of 35%. It was found that UCS, yield strength (YS), and thermal diffusivity were sensitive to gyroid unit cell size. The sample with the smallest cell size of 2 mm had superior YS of 626 MPa and thermal diffusivity of 76.4 mm2/s. The obtained results will shed light on the possibilities for further development of WCu manufacturing technology based on the LPBF method combined with subsequent infiltration.

Effect of pre-precipitation thermomechanical treatment on precipitation behavior of CLAM steel

China Low Activation Martensitic steel (CLAM) is a cladding material used in thermonuclear fusion reactors. Its high temperature performance is closely related to precipitation strengthening. The MX phase with strong thermal stability is the key to improving the high temperature performance of CLAM steel, and the M23C6 phase which is easy to coarsen under long-term high temperature service conditions is one of the important factors causing creep failure. In order to increase the content of MX phase and reduce the content of M23C6 phase, this paper first pre-precipitates near the precipitation temperature of M23C6 phase (which is also close to the maximum precipitation temperature of MX phase), which limits the precipitation of M23C6 phase and promotes the maximum precipitation of MX phase. Then the subsequent thermomechanical treatment is carried out. The results show that the content of M23C6 phase in the samples after pre-precipitation TMT is greatly reduced, and the size is slightly reduced compared with the samples with only thermal deformation. The size of the MX phase is reduced by 10.6 %, the volume density is increased by 88 %, the volume fraction is increased by 34.1 %, and the dislocation density is slightly increased. At the same time, it was found that a large number of MX phases precipitated at the lath boundary and pinned the boundary, which delayed the coarsening of the lath during tempering. The changes of these microstructures improve the precipitation strengthening, dislocation strengthening and boundary strengthening, so the room temperature tensile properties and high temperature tensile properties are improved, but the work hardening makes the total elongation and room temperature impact properties decrease.

Atomic hydrogen production in a cold plasma for application in a metal foil pump

Any good design of fuel cycles for thermonuclear fusion reactors, which operate on deuterium-tritium fusion, comes with minimized tritium inventory. The direct internal recycling concept can significantly reduce the tritium inventory of a fusion power plant by introducing a bypass for most of the unburned fuel from the torus exhaust. It requires a technology that can sharply separate hydrogen isotopes from other gases in the given environment in the reactor's pump duct. The prime candidate for this task is a metal foil pump (MFP) using plasma-driven permeation. A workflow toward a performance predicting modeling tool of a MFP is introduced. It is based on the characterization of the employed cold plasma by using a plasma simulation, which is experimentally validated using optical emission spectroscopy and the actinometry method. The used approach accounts for the radial inhomogeneity of the linearly extended plasma. We determine the atomic hydrogen content down to pressures of 1 Pa and condense the complex processes that contribute to the hydrogen atom production into a single excitation probability. This value can be used in Monte Carlo based modeling approaches to determine the particle exhaust performance of the vacuum pump.

Recrystallization kinetics of larger yttria particle dispersion tungsten alloy warm rolled to 50% thickness reduction

Tungsten-based materials are considered one of the candidate materials for the key components (such as the first wall and diverter) of future thermonuclear fusion reactors because of their excellent properties. At high operation temperatures, restoration processes such as recovery, recrystallization and grain growth will unavoidably embrittle ductile tungsten achieved by rolling. Dispersed second-phase particles will affect the recrystallization behavior. The thermal stability of a yttria dispersion-strengthened tungsten plate warm-rolled to 50% thickness reduction is investigated. Isochronous annealing is used to predict its recrystallization temperature range and isothermal annealing is used to study its recrystallization kinetics. The tungsten alloy in the present study has a faster recrystallization kinetics and a smaller activation energy compared to that of W-2 vol% Y2O3 alloy with small Y2O3 particles, indicating that the larger Y2O3 particles have little effect on impeding grain boundaries during recrystallization.

Recent Innovations and Patents of Lithium Extraction Techniques from Various Lithium Bearing Solutions

Abstract: Lithium, with its exceptional properties, such as remarkable redox activity and high specific heat capacity, finds widespread applications in thermonuclear fusion reactors, ceramics, batteries, aerospace, glass, metal additives, and photo-electricity. The growing demand for clean technology, especially electric cars and energy storage, has led to a significant rise in global lithium production. Brines now constitute a major portion of the world's lithium output, driving research in lithium extraction and purification methods. This study examines recent innovative research and patents, including various extraction techniques, sorbents, electrolysis-based approaches, and cost-effective methods. The study identifies gaps and limitations in existing lithium extraction technology and proposes future research areas to advance the field. The bibliographic analysis underscores the importance of further investigation to overcome current obstacles and drive progress in lithium extraction.

Engineering Paradigms for Sheared-Flow-Stabilized Z-Pinch Fusion Energy

The sheared-flow-stabilized Z-pinch concept is on a path to commercialization at Zap Energy. Recent experiments on the Fusion Z-pinch Experiment (FuZE) device corroborate expected plasma stability and thermonuclear fusion reaction rates. Experimental campaigns are underway to increase the pinch current, the stable plasma duration, and the DD fusion neutron production. The next-generation device FuZE-Q is currently undergoing commissioning and will begin operation at current levels where scientific breakeven-equivalent conditions are expected in the near future. The Z-pinch configuration offers the promise of a compact fusion device owing to its simple geometry, unity beta, and absence of external magnetic field coils. In addition to a robust experimental program pushing plasma performance toward breakeven conditions, Zap Energy has parallel programs developing power handling systems suitable for future power plants. Technologies under development include high-average-power repetitive pulsed power, high-duty-cycle cathodes, and liquid-metal wall systems. High-level features of the conceptual power plant core design are elaborated and compared with other approaches to fusion energy.

Simulations of complex electron paramagnetic resonance spectra for radiation-induced defect centres in advanced ceramic breeder pebbles

Advanced ceramic breeder (ACB) pebbles consisting of lithium orthosilicate (Li4SiO4) and the strengthening phase lithium metatitanate (Li2TiO3) are accepted as the European Union’s reference solid-state material for tritium breeding in thermonuclear fusion reactors. Previously, the influence of various radiation types on Li4SiO4-based ceramic breeder materials has already been investigated and described by several groups of researchers. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy is one of the most frequently used analytical and non-destructive techniques that can be selectively applied for qualitative and quantitative research of radiation-induced defect centres with paramagnetic properties (electron spin S ≠ 0). In the present work, individual signals of paramagnetic radiation-induced defect centres in the ACB pebbles after irradiation with X-rays were separated by EPR spectra simulations for the first time. Multiple signals of spin S = ½ systems with distinctive symmetries and g-factor (g) values were identified and characterised. Individual signal decay at room temperature was monitored and isochronal annealing of the irradiated ACB pebbles was performed in order to evaluate the stability of accumulated radiation-induced defect centres. Based on the obtained results, it was determined that radiation-induced defect centres with EPR signals in the g > 2.00 region are similar to irradiated single-phase Li4SiO4 ceramic materials, while additions of Li2TiO3 as the second phase in the ACB pebbles also stimulates the formation of several titanium-related electron centres with signals in the g < 2.00 region and different thermal properties.

Temperature gradient based annealing methodology for tungsten recrystallization kinetics assessment

In future thermonuclear fusion reactors, like ITER and DEMO, plasma-facing components with tungsten armor material will have to sustain high thermal fluxes (10 MW/m² in steady state and 20 MW/m² in quasi-steady-state). For such extreme conditions, tungsten may reach temperatures higher than 1000 °C and, consequently can be prone to recrystallize, which can limit the lifetime of the divertor targets under cycling thermal loadings. Characterization of recrystallization kinetics involves the use of different methods and devices (furnace, laser heating) depending on the annealing temperature regime to be analyzed. For these methods, the heating and the subsequent characterization of around 10 samples (5 × 4 × 4 mm) per annealing temperature is needed. In this article, a method is proposed to quantify the recrystallization kinetics between 1300 °C and 1600 °C using a limited number of samples and heating conditions. The basic idea is to induce a steady-state temperature gradient in tungsten rods by heating one side of the rod using a laser heating system. Tungsten rods (50 × 4 × 5 mm) were annealed with this method. The resulting microstructures are characterized using optical microscopy and hardness measurements. The different stages of tungsten softening are clearly evidenced. These first results can be considered as a proof of concept for the use of such a methodology to assess tungsten recrystallization at high temperature.

Comparative Analysis of Spectroscopic Studies of Tungsten and Carbon Deposits on Plasma-Facing Components in Thermonuclear Fusion Reactors

Studies on the erosion products of tungsten plasma-facing components (films, surfaces, and dust) for thermonuclear fusion reactors by spectroscopic methods are considered and compared with those of carbon deposits. The latter includes: carbon–deuterium CDx (x ~ 0.5) smooth films deposited at the vacuum chamber during the erosion of the graphite limiters in the T-10 tokamak and mixed CHx-Me films (Me = W, Fe, etc.) formed by irradiating a tungsten target with an intense H-plasma flux in a QSPA-T plasma accelerator. It is shown that the formerly developed technique for studying CDx films with 15 methods, including spectroscopic methods, such as XPS, TDS, EPR, Raman, and FT-IR, is universal and can be supplemented by a number of new methods for tungsten materials, including in situ analysis of the MAPP type using XPS, SEM, TEM, and probe methods, and nuclear reaction method. In addition, the analysis of the fractality of the CDx films using SAXS + WAXS is compared with the analysis of the fractal structures formed on tungsten and carbon surfaces under the action of high-intensity plasma fluxes. A comparative analysis of spectroscopic studies on carbon and tungsten deposits makes it possible to identify the problems of the safe operation of thermonuclear fusion reactors.

Numerical method and experimental validation of the magneto-thermal-mechanical coupling problem with application to tokamak structures

Tokamak is a kind of device that uses strong magnetic fields to confine the hot nuclear fuel in plasma state and achieve the controlled thermonuclear fusion reaction. It is well-known that increasing the plasma elongation is beneficial for improving the performance of tokamak. However, high elongation is always along with a strong intrinsic vertical instability. The control system to neutralize the vertical instability of the plasma may fail. As a result, the plasma will move vertically and finally strike on the plasma-facing components accompanied by rapid thermal and current disruption. During this process, large eddy currents will be induced in the plasma surrounding conductive structures and high heat flux will be injected into the first wall of the vacuum vessel (VV). The eddy currents and the temperature gradient then produce strong Lorentz forces and thermal stress, which may cause excessive deformation or even failure of the device. Additionally, there are complicated magneto-thermal-mechanical coupling (MTMC) phenomena in the dynamics of the tokamak structures, which may have non-negligible influences on the distribution of the electromagnetic and mechanical loads and the dynamic response of the structure. To ensure the safety of the tokamak device, it is necessary to make quantitative evaluations of the coupling effects on the transient response of the VV and in-vessel structures during plasma disruptions. In this paper, efficient numerical methods were proposed for solving the structural dynamic problem with MTMC effects. The nonlinear interaction between the magneto-mechanical terms was linearized with a block-Gauss-Seidel iterative algorithm, and an adaptive matrix update algorithm was proposed to cope with the temperature effect on material properties. In addition, an MTMC experiment system with both electromagnetic load and thermal load was set up to demonstrate the validity and efficiency of the proposed numerical methods. Finally, the dynamic response of the vacuum vessel of HL-2M tokamak during a typical plasma disruption was simulated using our updated numerical code, and influences of the MTMC effects were quantitatively evaluated.

Hybrid-kinetic simulation of synergy between fishbone/sawtooth and tearing mode-induced energetic-ion transport in a tokamak plasma

The resonant interaction between tearing mode (TM) and energetic ions redistributed by fishbone/sawtooth collapse has been observed recently in HL-2A neutral beam injection-heated high-density plasmas, where m is the poloidal mode number and n is the toroidal mode number. This event essentially results from a synergistic effect with a multiple-mode nature. Understanding such experimental phenomena, especially when using high-power auxiliary heating, is crucial for achieving high-performance plasmas with high confinement and high β N in the prospective thermonuclear fusion reactors. In this work, based on the typical experimental phenomenon of synergy between fishbone/sawtooth and TM on HL-2A, a self-consistent nonlinear hybrid-kinetic simulation is conducted utilizing the experimental parameters and profiles before the occurrence of this synergy as the code M3D-K input. In particular, we focus chiefly on the phase-space transport, loss and redistribution of energetic ions induced by two cases, one with only TM and one with synergy between fishbone/sawtooth and TM. It is found that the synergy of the fishbone/sawtooth and TM on energetic-ion transport, loss and redistribution is important and can dramatically enhance the loss rate of energetic ions compared with the case with only TM. It is due to the fact that such synergy can open up an efficient energetic-ion loss channel which connects the plasma center and edge. The phase space transport and redistribution of energetic ions induced by the two different cases are also respectively analyzed and compared in detail. Because of the overestimation of amplitudes of fishbone/sawtooth and TM in the simulations, the obtained energetic-ion transport level is only limited in the context of the numerical framework. These findings indicate that the synergy triggering the sawtooth collapse may lead to an enhancement of the energetic-ion transport and can help us understand the underlying mechanisms of synergy-induced energetic-ion transport.

Investigation of Unusual Activities of the Universe Concerning Solar and Terrestrial Context

A controlled thermonuclear fusion reaction of the Sun appears to be a remarkable evidence of the existence of a planet in the outer space. A microwave background of radiation of a planet in the outer space subjected to white dwarf plasma becomes relevant to the case of a temperature at 0⁰c. Since singularity collapse concerning a Hot Big Bang, the edge of space- time fails. Irregular change of galaxies deals with a vacuum to exhibit spiral radio galaxies permeated by magnetic pressure. The expansion of universe can be extended rigorously to raise its temperature with the growing of a magnetic field as the singularity collapses at the point at infinity and the universe will become fall into ice as the temperature becomes true. Indeed, the configuration of the Sun leads to supernova explosion concerning the abundance of helium to become a neutron star.

Liquid lithium as divertor material to mitigate severe damage of nearby components during plasma transients

The successful operation of thermonuclear fusion reactors such as ITER, DEMO, and future commercial plants is mainly determined by the optimum choice of materials for various components. The objective of this work is to accurately and comprehensively simulate the entire device in 3D to predict pros and cons of various materials, e.g., liquid lithium in comparison to tungsten and carbon to predict future ITER-like and DEMO divertor performances. We used our comprehensive HEIGHTS simulation package to investigate ITER-like components response during transient events in exact 3D geometry. Starting from the lost hot core plasma particles through SOL, deposition on the divertor surface, and the generation of secondary plasma of divertor materials. Our simulations predicted significant reduction in the heat loading and damage to the divertor nearby and internal components in the case when lithium is used on the divertor plates. While if tungsten or carbon are used on the divertor plate, significant melting areas and vaporization spots can occur (less for carbon) on the reflector, dome, and stainless steel tubes, and even parts of the first walls can melt due to the high radiation power of the secondary divertor plasma. Lithium photon radiation deposition into the divertor and nearby surfaces was decreased by two orders of magnitude compared to tungsten and by one order of magnitude compared to carbon. This analysis showed that using liquid lithium for ITER-like surfaces and future DEMO can lead to significant enhancement in components lifetime.

Efficacy of inertial confinement fusion experiments in light ion fusion cross section measurement at nucleosynthesis relevant energies

Inertial confinement fusion (ICF) experiments create a unique laboratory environment in which thermonuclear fusion reactions occur within a plasma, with conditions comparable to stellar cores and the early universe. In contrast, accelerator-based measurements must compete with bound electron screening effects and beam stopping when measuring fusion cross sections at nucleosynthesis-relevant energies. Therefore, ICF experiments are a natural place to study nuclear reactions relevant to nuclear astrophysics. However, analysis of ICF-based measurements must address its own set of complicating factors. These include: the inherent range of reaction energies, spatial and temporal thermal temperature variation, and kinetic effects such as species separation. In this work we examine these phenomena and develop an analysis to quantify and, when possible, compensate for their effects on our inference. Error propagation in the analyses are studied using synthetic data combined with Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) machine learning. The novel inference techniques will aid in the extraction of valuable and accurate data from ICF-based nuclear astrophysics experiments.

Molecular dynamics simulation of the tensile response and deformation mechanism of diamond/TiC combinations

The diamond materials combine several prominent intrinsic performances, such as high transmittance, low microwave dielectric loss, and so on. A nanoscale carbide layer will be indispensably produced on their surface to guarantee the diamond can be wetted by metallic parts, for example the diamond microwave window for use in thermonuclear fusion reactor. The mechanical performance of the diamond/carbide layer interfacial bonding, which remains unknown because of dimensional limitation, will be critically vital. In this work, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was conducted to explore the fracture mechanism of diamond/TiC combinations under uniaxial tension. The deformation behavior of (001), (110), and (111) single-crystalline (SC) TiC on diamond was investigated based on the stress–strain curve, fracture process, and dislocation evolution. The crystallographic orientation-dependent fracture modes were revealed. For the case of TiC(001) and TiC(110), the plastic fracture happened. The TiC{111} dislocations would be first emitted from the interface. Different dislocation morphologies were presented, such as stair-rod dislocations and dislocation tangles for TiC(001), as well as geometrically necessary dislocations for TiC(110). For the TiC(111), the brittle fracture took place because most easily activated slip planes were perpendicular to the force direction. Our findings revealed the nanomechanical behaviors and corresponding deformation mechanisms of the diamond/TiC combinations, facilitating the design and development of nanostructured combinations with superior mechanical performance.

Deuterium Retention in Mixed Layers with Application in Fusion Technology

Formation of Be-W mixed layers in thermonuclear fusion reactors can potentially alter the retention of hydrogen isotopes and affect the retention and release properties of these isotopes. This paper reports on the retention and release characteristics of D from reference Be, W layers as well as three Be-W mixed layers with well-defined atomic concentrations (2:1, 1:1, 1:2). The layers resulted from the sputtering of Be and W materials in Ar:D (1:1) mixture at 2 Pa using DC magnetron sputtering. The mixed layers’ deposition parameters were varied to adjust accordingly the deposition rate for each material in order to obtain the desired concentrations. Scanning electron microscope images showed that morphology is independent of composition for samples deposited on silicon substrates. In contrast, layers deposited on tungsten revealed a textured surface and morphological changes with W concentration variation. X-ray diffraction patterns of mixed layers evidenced the presence of a polycrystalline tungsten phase. Additionally, the degree of crystallinity is highly influenced by the plasma parameters and enhanced amorphization is evidenced by a decrease of crystalline size by a factor of 10 for mixed layers compared to the W reference layer. The release behavior of D from the layers is affected by the trapping contribution of both Be and W. Compared with implanted layers, presented in literature studies, the co-deposited layers show a high D occupancy of low energy trapping states, the majority of the D retained in the samples being released at temperatures below 623 K. High energy trapping becomes more pronounced for layers with a high Be concentration. The oxygen contamination observed for Be layers points to a mitigation of D retention in low energy trapping states and shifts the desorption chart towards a higher temperature due to enhanced retention in BeO associated traps. The D retention presents a linear decrease of W concentration in the sample.

The Development of 170 GHz, 1 MW Gyrotron for Fusion Application

This paper presents the overall conceptual design of a 170 GHz, 1 MW gyrotron for plasma heating applications in thermonuclear fusion reactors. The operating mode is carefully selected with consideration of mode competition. The TE25,10 mode is determined as the operating mode in the present study. A weakly tapered conventional resonator is used for the study of the RF behavior, and multimode calculations are carried out for power and efficiencies. The optimized structure of the beam tunnel can further attenuate low-frequency oscillation. The design studies of a triode-type magnetic injection gun, quasi-optical mode converter, and single-disc sapphire window are also described. In addition, novel cold test methods which can effectively validate assembles are designed. In 2021, a prototype gyrotron was fabricated to validate the electronic–optic system and RF system. The current results obtained support an output power of 210 kW and efficiency of 15.9% through an initial low-power experiment. On the basis of the optimized design, an industrial prototype gyrotron is under fabrication as the heating source for the thermonuclear experimental reactor.

Thermal properties of paramagnetic radiation-induced defects in lithium orthosilicate containing breeder material

Lithium orthosilicate (Li4SiO4) containing ceramics are currently being developed as potential solid-state candidate materials for tritium breeding in future thermonuclear fusion reactors. Under the expected operational conditions, the tritium breeding material will be exposed to the simultaneous influence of several strong energetic factors, for example, radiation, temperature, magnetic field, etc. In the present work, thermal properties of the formed and accumulated paramagnetic radiation-induced defects (containing unpaired electrons) in the Li4SiO4 pebbles with a 2.5 wt.% surplus of silicon dioxide (SiO2) were investigated after irradiation with photons of different types and energies: X-rays with an energy up to 45 keV, gamma rays with an average energy of 1.25 MeV, and bremsstrahlung with an energy up to 6 MeV. The photon-irradiated pebbles were analysed using two complementary spectroscopic methods: electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and thermally stimulated luminescence (TSL). Individual signals contributing to the acquired EPR spectra, TSL glow curves and spectra were distinguished, deconvoluted and simulated in order to obtain a more detailed understanding about the local structure, electron configuration, and thermal stability of the accumulated radiation-induced defects. The simulation and deconvolution data were also compared with the results, which have been acquired for the long-term neutron-irradiated pebbles from the HICU experiment (High neutron fluence Irradiation of pebble staCks for fUsion).

Simplified Neutron Peak Width Formula for Thermonuclear Fusion Reactions

The neutron spectra measurement is important for larger fusion devices because it can provide ion temperature diagnostics independent of ion density. In this work, the neutron spectrum in the thermonuclear reaction is analyzed with a different approach, is approximately determined by the Maxwell distribution of the reaction particle, and is independent of the reaction cross section.

DEUTERON INDUCED FUSION REACTION TARGET FOR INERTIAL CONFINEMENT FUSION (ICF)

Objective: Energy efficiency enhancement is one of the most effective ways to achieve Fast ignition (FI) in inertial confinement fusion ICF. High energy output gain is essential for ICF reactors and greater energy efficiency can reduce energy costs. The injection of Ion beam is one method used to achieve FI fusion reaction in ICF. A fusion of deuteron with lithium-6 isotope, DLi6 is reviewed in this work alongside the fusion of Deuterium – Tritium (DT), Deuterium – Deuterium (DD), Deuterium – Helium-3 (DHe3) and Proton – Boron-11 (PB11).&#x0D; Materials and Methods: In this work, it is proposed the projection of laser-driven deuteron beam in the FI scheme for ICF in the DLi6 plasma. Fusion occurs as the projected deuteron ion beam hits the lithium-6 target in the thermonuclear fusion reaction.&#x0D; Results: The results show that the fusion reactions of DD, DHe3 and PB11 all require high input kinetic energy (Mega-electronvolts) for the fusion process to occur because of higher Coulomb barrier and the probability of fusion increases by increasing the input energy drive with low output energy gain. DT fusion which require low input kinetic energy of about 400 KeV with high cross section and generated considerable high output energy gain of about 17.59 MeV, However this fusion reaction require large tritium inventory and tritium does not occur naturally, therefore the need for tritium breeding. When the energy of deuteron beam is projected at 200 keV to lithium-6 isotope target, although D + Li6 has a low total cross section of about 19.409 mbarn, the stopping power of the electrons would be more than ions, nuclear stopping power is considerable at very low deuterons energies, the Coulomb interaction of deuteron and lithium-6 occurs with output energy gain of about 22.373 MeV.&#x0D; Conclusion: The investigations indicate that fusion target energy gain efficiency is independent of lithium-6 numerical density. The highest value of energy efficiency gain occurs with lower input kinetic energy of deuteron beam of about 200 KeV to lithium-target.&#x0D; Recommendation: This findings contribute to the core mission of NIF in achieving fast ignition with low ignition energy input to achieve Lawson break-even or "ignition" point of the fusion fuel pellet, where it gives off 100% or more energy than it absorbs. However the simulation results were based on programmed model of Geant4 Hadr03. This results can be validated with the appropriate experimental design of the Hadr03 process.