Thermoacoustic Research Articles

Modeling of the acoustic field of thermally induced ultrasonic emission from a spherical cavity surface

Thermo-acoustic (TA) ultrasound has attracted considerable interest during the last decade for its many advantages over the conventional electro-acoustic ultrasound. In this paper, a general expression of the acoustic pressure field of thermally induced ultrasonic emission from a spherical cavity surface is derived by using a fully thermally–mechanically coupled TA model. The characteristics and regularities of ultrasound from spherical focusing TA emitter can therefore be studied in detail. It is found that, for the TA emission in sphere shell, wideband flat amplitude–frequency response pattern, the most important feature of TA ultrasound in an open space from a technical standpoint, is seriously disrupted by wave interference occurring in spherical cavity. The dependences of sound pressure of TA ultrasound in spherical cavity on the heating frequency, the inner radius of spherical cavity, the location in spherical cavity, and the thickness of TA sample layer, as well as the type and filling pressure of gas in cavity are given and discussed. The currently used planar TA solution is only the special case for spherical cavity with infinite radius of the analytical solution developed in this work, which would be of significance for more comprehensive guide to understanding and using TA ultrasound.

Solution for acoustic field of thermo-acoustic emission from arbitrary source

In this work, an expression for acoustic field of thermo-acoustic (TA) emission from arbitrary source is presented by deriving the solutions of TA emission from spherical surface and point source in gas and then taking advantage of the point sources superposition and the surface heat distribution factor. Accordingly, the computational analysis of acoustic pressure field of TA emission is extended to three-dimensional cases. The theory developed in this work is in good agreement with the experimental results and applicable for solving many complex and important TA emission problems including nanothermophones and phased array and impulse-driven TA emissions.

Thermal management of thermoacoustic sound projectors using a free-standing carbon nanotube aerogel sheet as a heat source

Carbon nanotube (CNT) aerogel sheets produce smooth-spectra sound over a wide frequency range (1–105 Hz) by means of thermoacoustic (TA) sound generation. Protective encapsulation of CNT sheets in inert gases between rigid vibrating plates provides resonant features for the TA sound projector and attractive performance at needed low frequencies. Energy conversion efficiencies in air of 2% and 10% underwater, which can be enhanced by further increasing the modulation temperature. Using a developed method for accurate temperature measurements for the thin aerogel CNT sheets, heat dissipation processes, failure mechanisms, and associated power densities are investigated for encapsulated multilayered CNT TA heaters and related to the thermal diffusivity distance when sheet layers are separated. Resulting thermal management methods for high applied power are discussed and deployed to construct efficient and tunable underwater sound projector for operation at relatively low frequencies, 10 Hz–10 kHz. The optimal design of these TA projectors for high-power SONAR arrays is discussed.

Thermo-electromagnetic sound transducer based on carbon nanotube sheet

Multi-walled carbon nanotube sheet stretched between conductive rods was placed in magnetic field and excited with alternating electrical current to obtain hybrid thermo-electromagnetic sound transducer (TEMST). Unlike quite common thermoacoustic (TA) device capable of conversion of heat into acoustic signal, sound generation in explored design is provided by diaphragm-like oscillations of thermally excited sheet induced by the electromagnetic Lorentz force. This results in the interference of TA and Lorentz force-driven contributions causing substantial variation of intensity and spatial distribution of first harmonic of emitted signal. Acoustic spectra and sound propagation direction for TEMST device can be controlled by applied bias voltage that is beneficial for diverse sound management applications. Observed dependence of acoustic amplitude on field strength can be used for magnetic sensing.

Segmentation and artifact removal in microwave-induced thermoacoustic imaging.

Microwave-induced thermoacoustic (TA) imaging combines the soft-tissue dielectric contrast of microwave excitation with the resolution of ultrasound for the goal of a safe, high resolution, and possibly portable imaging technique. However, the hybrid nature of this method introduces new image-reconstruction challenges in enabling sufficient accuracy and segmentation. In this paper, we propose a segmentation technique based on the polarity characteristic of TA signals. A wavelet analysis based method is proposed to identify reflection artifacts as well. The time-frequency feature of the signal is used to assist differentiating artifacts. Ex vivo verification with experimental data is also provided.

Stepped-frequency continuous-wave microwave-induced thermoacoustic imaging

Microwave-induced thermoacoustic (TA) imaging combines the dielectric contrast of microwave imaging with the resolution of ultrasound imaging. Prior studies have only focused on time-domain techniques with short but powerful microwave pulses that require a peak output power in excess of several kilowatts to achieve sufficient signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). This poses safety concerns as well as to render the imager expensive and bulky with requiring a large vacuum radio frequency source. Here, we propose and demonstrate a coherent stepped-frequency continuous-wave (SFCW) technique for TA imaging which enables substantial improvements in SNR and consequently a reduction in peak power requirements for the imager. Constructive and destructive interferences between TA signals are observed and explained. Full coherency across microwave and acoustic domains, in the thermo-elastic response, is experimentally verified and this enables demonstration of coherent SFCW microwave-induced TA imaging. Compared to the pulsed technique, an improvement of 17 dB in SNR is demonstrated.

Transient and synchronization behaviors of a standing-wave TA (Thermoacoustic) laser pair

The transient and synchronization behaviors of a TA (thermoacoustic) laser pair were investigated experimentally for various crossing angles and different separation distances between the laser openings. Sound waves generated by the lasers were measured and analyzed at or near the focusing point by means of microphones, SPL meters, and a commercial software called Signal-Express. The two TA lasers were acoustically coupled through the air mass between their openings, and the only mode-locking operation that could be achieved was the one that was nearly 180° out of phase. The time to achieve synchronization was found to be dependent upon the initial mistuning of the frequencies and the crossing angle between the laser axes. The synchronization process could also be accelerated by turning on the laser with the lower power input first.

Generalized Theory of Thermo-Acoustic Emission from Nanocrystalline Porous Silicon

In this work, a general expression of the thermo-acoustic (TA) emission from nanocrystalline porous silicon (nc-PS) is derived by using a fully thermally-mechanically coupled multilayer TA model. This expression takes thermal, mechanical, and geometry properties of every layer in a multilayer structure, as well as the thermal contact resistances between layers into consideration and hence agrees well with the experimental results. Therefore, many fundamental problems in thermally induced ultrasonic emission from nanoporous silicon can be studied.

Thermoacoustic sound projectors using carbon nanotubes and other nanostructures

The application of solid-state fabricated carbon nanotube sheets as thermoacoustic (TA) projectors is extended from air to underwater applications. Due to non-resonant sound generation, the emission spectrum of nanotube sheets in air or underwater varies smoothly over a wide frequency range, 1-105 Hz. Encapsulating the nanotube sheet projectors using inert gases with low heat capacity provided attractive performance at needed low frequencies, as well as a realized energy conversion efficiency in air of 0.2% and 1.5% underwater, which can be enhanced by further increasing the modulation temperature. We suggest enhancement of sound generation efficiency of encapsulated device by using high quality resonant acoustical windows and modulation of high frequency carrier current with a low frequency resonant envelope. Applications of TA projectors for high power sonar arrays and transparent flexible loudspeakers will be discussed. Finally, the alternative nanostructures for excitation of thermoacoustic sound waves will be surveyed. [We gratefully acknowledge support by Office of Naval Research grant N00014-13-1-0180.]

가스터빈 연소기에서 화염의 위치를 고려한 열음향 해석

Authors' previous works on thermoacoustic(TA) model development showed good results in predicting combustion instability characteristics in a gas turbine combustor. However, they also suggested there were some limitations in growth rate estimation, which might be related with over-simplification of flame structure. As a first trial for improving the model accuracy, the current paper introduces the modified TA model considering the actual flame location in the combustor. The combustor is divided into the unburned and the burned area before and after the flame location, and then acoustic equations are re-organized. The modified TA model results show a better accuracy in predicting the growth rate of instabilities comparing with the previous results. However, obtained results still overestimate the conditions where the combustor goes unstable. Further researches considering heat release distribution through flames are required.

Volumetric Thermoacoustic Imaging over Large Fields of View

The thermoacoustic (TA) contrast mechanism relies on rapid tissue heating and subsequent thermal expansion. TA computerized tomography (TCT) is therefore inverse source imaging. The TA contrast mechanism provides information complementary to that revealed by current diagnostic imaging techniques, but has been limited to just a few centimeters depth penetration. In this article, whole organ TCT is demonstrated on a large swine kidney. TA sinograms show that TA signal generated by high-power, very high frequency (VHF) electromagnetic pulses is detectable after travel through 6 cm of soft tissue. Reconstructed images provide resolution sufficient to track progression of calyces throughout the kidney. Because VHF electromagnetic energy can easily penetrate the abdomen of large adults, our results indicate that whole organ TA imaging is feasible in vivo, provided an ultrasound array can be placed near the region of interest. Pulses of 22 to 25 kW with carrier frequency 108 MHz and 900 ns pulse width were applied at a 100-Hz pulse repetition frequency to generate a 13-kV/m electric field and TA signal. Only 2 to 5 mJ was absorbed in the kidney per pulse, causing temperature and pressure jumps of only 5e-6°C and 4 Pa averaged throughout the 141-g specimen. TA pulses were detected by focused, single-element transducers (V306, Panametrics), amplified by 54 dB and averaged 64 times to reduce electronic noise. Data were measured over a cylindrical measurement aperture of radius 5 cm and length 6 cm, by rotating the specimen 1.8 degrees between tomographic views and translating 2 mm between slices. Reconstruction via filtered backprojection yields in-plane resolution better than 5 mm, but suffers significant blurring between planes. Both in-plane resolution and slice sensitivity profile could be improved by applying shorter irradiation pulsewidths and using less directional transducers. Both hardware changes would be recommended for a clinical prototype.

연소 불안정 예측을 위한 열음향 해석 모델 - Part 2 : 비선형 안정성 해석

연소 불안정 현상을 완전하게 이해하기 위해서는 천이 과정과 한계 진폭과 같은 비선형 거동에 대한 예측이 매우 중요하다. 가스터빈 희박 예혼합 연소기에서 이러한 비선형 거동은 화염의 비선형 동특성에 크게 의존하게 된다. 본 연구에서는 기존에 선형 해석으로부터 비선형 열음향 해석으로 확장하기 위해서 화염 묘사 함수를 통한 시스템 안정성 해석 기법이 소개되었다. 이를 위하여, 주파수 뿐만 아니라 속도 진폭에 따른 열발생율의 변동 특성이 실험 결과로부터 모델링되었다. 현재 해석 조건에서 비선형 모델링 결과, 주어진 연소기 길이에서 속도 진폭이 불안정 주파수에 미치는 영향은 미비하였으나, 성장률에는 크게 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 향후 다양한 조건에서 비선형 모델의 검증과 한계 진폭의 예측 결과에 대한 실험 결과와의 비교가 요구된다. It is very important to predict the nonlinear behavior of combustion instability such as transition phenomena and limit cycle amplitude for fully understanding and controlling the instabilities. These nonlinear instability characteristics are highly dependent upon the flames' nonlinear dynamics in a gas turbine premixed combustor. In this study, nonlinear instability TA(Thermo-acoustic) models were introduced by applying the concept of flame describing function to the thermoacoustic analysis method. As a result of model development, for a given combustor length, the growth rate of instability was greatly affected by the change in amplitude, although the instability frequency was not. Further researches under various operating conditions and model validation on limit cycle amplitude are required.

Ultrashort Microwave-Induced Thermoacoustic Imaging: A Breakthrough in Excitation Efficiency and Spatial Resolution

With theoretical prediction and experimental validation, we propose a novel approach to significantly enhance the conversion efficiency of thermoacoustic (TA) imaging by using an ultrashort microwave pulse. The implementation of the ultrashort microwave pulse leads to orders of magnitude enhancement in excitation efficiency and spatial resolution, compared to that from existing TA imaging techniques. This allows high-resolution (~ 100 micron resolution) TA imaging to be acquired noninvasively. The present work represents a major breakthrough in the conversion efficiency of the TA effect and the resolution of TA imaging, which can potentially be used for clinical imaging.

Wideband flat frequency response of thermo-acoustic emission

Many advantages of thermo-acoustic (TA) ultrasound over the conventional electro-acoustic ultrasound are mainly attributed to its unique nature—constant (flat) amplitude–frequency response over a wide frequency range. However, realization of the TA flat frequency response itself has so far remained unclear due to the lack of theoretical investigation. In this work, using analysis of thermal–mechanical coupling and thermal wave penetration depth for TA emission in gas, the mechanism and regularities of flat frequency response are clarified. The limits of both frequency and space for the existence of flat frequency response of TA ultrasound are revealed. In addition, the performance evaluation and selection techniques for both TA material and its backing are presented. Therefore, the most important feature of TA ultrasound from a technical standpoint is studied more completely.

Analysis of spherical thermo-acoustic radiation in gas

A general solution of the spherical thermo-acoustic (TA) radiation from any solid in gas is derived by using a fully thermally-mechanically coupled TA model. Therefore, the characteristics and regularities of spherical TA emission can be studied more completely. It is shown that flat amplitude-frequency response, the most important feature for planar TA emission from technical standpoint, still exists for spherical TA emission, and changes with the radius of a sphere, thickness of TA sample, and the distance from surface. This expression agrees well with experimental and theoretical results of planer TA emission for much larger sphere and lays the foundation to calculate complex TA emission problems.

Parametric energy conversion of thermoacoustic vibrations

We demonstrate a parametric energy conversion method of thermoacoustic (TA) vibrations into electrical oscillations of a LC circuit. The inductance modulation necessary to excite the parametric oscillations is achieved by varying the air gap between two halves of a ferrite E-core coil. As a proof-of-concept, the parametric converter was attached to a Sondhauss tube that converts the heat into acoustic vibrations. The maximum total acoustic power output of this thermoacoustic engine was ∼5.3 mW. A flexible metallic membrane capping the Sondhauss tube connected to the moving half E-core served as a mechanical oscillator. The resonance frequency of the membrane was matched with the operating frequency (130 Hz) of the Sondhauss tube for resonant energy extraction. We have characterized the power output of the complete system as a function of electrical load. The maximum electrical power of 2.3 mW produced by the system corresponds to an acoustic-to-electric conversion efficiency of 44%.

Performance characterization of an integrated ultrasound, photoacoustic, and thermoacoustic imaging system

We developed a novel trimodality system for human breast imaging by integrating photoacoustic (PA) and thermoacoustic (TA) imaging techniques into a modified commercial ultrasound scanner. Because light was delivered with an optical assembly placed within the microwave antenna, no mechanical switching between the microwave and laser sources was needed. Laser and microwave excitation pulses were interleaved to enable PA and TA data acquisition in parallel at a rate of 10 frames per second. A tube (7 mm inner diameter) filled with oxygenated bovine blood or 30 mM methylene blue dye was successfully detected in PA images in chicken breast tissue at depths of 6.6 and 8.4 cm, respectively, for the first time. The SNRs at these depths reached ∼24 and ∼15 dB, respectively, by averaging 200 signal acquisitions. Similarly, a tube (13 mm inner diameter) filled with saline solution (0.9%) at a depth of 4.4 cm in porcine fat tissue was successfully detected in TA images. The PA axial, lateral, and elevational resolutions were 640 μm, 720 μm, and 3.5 mm, respectively, suitable for breast cancer imaging. A PA noise-equivalent sensitivity to methylene blue solution of 260 nM was achieved in chicken tissue at a depth of 3.4 cm.

Acoustic waves generated by a TA (ThermoAcoustic) laser pair

Sound waves and acoustic energy generated by two identical TA (ThermoAcoustic) lasers were analyzed and studied. SPL (Sound Pressure Level) meters and microphones were employed to measure and study the sound waves at different distances from the openings of the TA laser pair for different laser position arrangements. The sound waves of the two TA lasers at or near the focusing point were found to be almost 180° out of phase when the distance between the openings of the two lasers was within about two tube diameters and the angle between the laser axes did not exceed 135°. As the distance increased, it became difficult to control the two TA lasers in synchronized operation. For separation distances greater than three times tube diameter, the sound wave amplitudes and the phase difference between the two laser outputs varied periodically with time. With the openings of the two TA lasers touching each other, the frequency of the sound waves increased when the angle between the laser axes was very close to 180°. In this case, the glass tube opening was no longer a pressure anti-node and the wavelength of the fundamental mode reduced to approximately twice the tube length.

열음향(Thermoacoustic) 레이저의 음향파 특성 분석

Sound waves and acoustic energy generated by two identical TA (ThermoAcoustic) lasers were analyzed and studied. One end of the ceramic stack was heated by a thin NiCr wire wound around that end. The other end of the stack was cooled by natural convection of atmospheric air. The wavelength of the sound waves generated by a single TA laser was four times the tube length and the amplitude of the waves increased with the heating rate. SPL (SoundPressure Level) meters and microphones were employed to measure and study the sound waves at different distances from the glass tube opening and at the focusing point of the TA laser pair for different laser position arrangements. The sound waves of the two TA lasers at the focusing point were found to be almost 180 degrees out of phase when the openings of the two lasers were very close to each other and the angle between the laser axes was small. When the two TA lasers were placed far apart, the sound wave amplitudes and the phase difference between the two laser outputs varied periodically with time. The frequencies of the sound waves changed when the openings of the two TA lasers were in close vicinity and the angle between the laser axes exceeded a certain value. In this case, the glass tube opening was no longer a pressure anti-node and the wavelength of the fundamental mode was not equal to four times the tube length.

Effect of excitation pulse width on thermoacoustic signal characteristics and the corresponding algorithm for optimization of imaging resolution

Thermoacoustic (TA) signal amplitude, waveform, and spatial resolution related to width of the excitation pulse were theoretically explained and simulated by finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. TA signals and the reconstructed TA images were compared under variable microwave pulse widths tunable from 400 to 1200 ns to analyze the relationships. The peak-to-peak interval of TA signals increase and the spatial resolution of TA images decrease with the increment of the excitation pulse width in the long pulse region. Also, the experimental results clearly reveal that the TA conversion efficiency decrease with increasing microwave pulse duration under the same peak power, which have a good agreement with the theoretical predication and FDTD simulation.