Thermal Aging Research Articles

Characterization of temperature regulating, high-temperature rheological and anti-aging properties of asphalt mastic modified with SSPCMs

The objective of this study is to explore the potential of utilizing self-developed SSPCMs as additives for heat storage temperature regulation in asphalt mastic modification. To achieve this aim, a variety of asphalt mastics with different F-A volume ratios and SSPCM contents were formulated, and their high-temperature rheological properties, modification mechanisms, thermoregulation capabilities, and aging resistance performances were analyzed. The results of temperature regulation test indicated that the maximum cooling amplitude of asphalt mastic could reach 11.3°C, showing a great promising application for cooling asphalt pavements. Additionally, the incorporation of SSPCMs generally resulted in positive impacts on both the high-temperature rheological properties and temperature sensitivity of the asphalt mastics. Moreover, the aging indices GAI, ICO and ISO of the modified asphalt mastic with 30 % SSPCMs decreased by 5.6 %, 18.3 % and 8.7 %, respectively, compared with control asphalt mastic, implying that the incorporation of SSPCMs can retard the aging process of asphalt and enhance the thermal oxidative aging resistance of the asphalt mastics. In summary, the current study demonstrates the feasibility, improved performance, and effective thermoregulation properties of SSPCMs in asphalt mastics.

The Effect of 3D Printing Layer Thickness and Post-Polymerization Time on the Flexural Strength and Hardness of Denture Base Resins

Purpose: This study evaluates and compares the effect of printing layer thickness (LT) and post-polymerization time (PPT) on the flexural strength and hardness of three 3D-printed resins after thermal aging. Methods: A bar shape (64 × 10 × 3.3 mm) and a disc shape (15 × 2 mm) were designed for flexural strength and hardness testing, respectively. ASIGA, NextDent, and FormLabs 3D-printed resins were used to print specimens with different LTs (25 µm, 50 µm, and 100 µm). Each thickness group was post-polymerized (PP) for different times (15, 30, 60, and 90 min). All printed specimens were thermally cycled (5000 cycles) and then tested, measuring the flexural strength and hardness using a universal testing machine and Vickers hardness tester, respectively. The data were analyzed using ANOVA and a post hoc Tukey’s test (α = 0.05). Results: A PPT of 90 min showed the highest flexural strength. In comparisons of the LTs, 25 µm and 50 µm significantly increased flexural strength compared with 100 µm, which showed the lowest value for each PPT. The hardness increased as the PPT increased for all materials. In our LT comparison, 25 µm and 50 µm significantly increased the hardness for NextDent and FormLabs resins, while only 25 µm showed high hardness compared with 50 µm and 100 µm for ASIGA. Conclusion: Both parameters (LT and PPT) impact flexural strength and hardness. Increased PPT with the minimum LT is recommended.

Interlaminar tensile strength of Alumina-Based Oxide/Oxide ceramic matrix composite at room temperature and 1200 °C using diametral compression test method

The diametral compression test method on circular disks is used in this study to determine the interlaminar tensile strength of an alumina-based Oxide/Oxide ceramic matrix composite at room temperature, 1200 °C, and at room temperature after being thermally aged for 150 h at 1200 °C. Digital image correlation was used in all the tests to measure the full-field strain and observe the progression of interlaminar failure. Post-test fractography was performed to identify the fracture characteristics. All the specimens failed along the disk diameter that coincided with the line of loading, proving the reliability and repeatability of the test method. The thermally aged specimens showed the stiffest response and the highest interlaminar tensile strength. This is attributed to further densification of the matrix due to the thermal aging, confirmed by microstructural characterization. The path of fracture at catastrophic failure traversed the matrix in both the inter-ply and intra-ply regions.

Research insight into the change of aggregation structure of BOPP films and its influence on electrical properties under accelerated thermal aging

AbstractBiaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) film used in pulse film capacitors withstands high temperatures for a long time. This leads to frequent faults in pulse film capacitors, affecting the reliability of the pulse system. In this paper, the thermal aging tests of BOPP films at 100°C for 10–80 days are carried out in this paper, and the physicochemical and electrical properties of the aging materials are characterized. The results show that more deep and shallow traps to BOPP films are introduced during the thermal aging process. With the increase in aging time, the breakdown field strength gradually decreases, and the conductivity decreases first and then increases. Under the action of thermal aging for a long time, the recrystallization of materials and the destruction of molecular chains by thermal aging are the main reasons for the increase of traps and the decrease of breakdown field strength. The former is dominant in the early stage of aging, and the latter is dominant in the late stage of aging. Therefore, the conductivity shows the law of slow decrease first and then rapid increase. The relevant research provides a theoretical foundation for the process improvement and life prediction of BOPP films.

Partial substitution of rhodium with ruthenium in Pd-Rh nanoalloys and its impact on catalytic characteristics

In the present work, alumina-supported trimetallic Pd-Rh-Ru catalysts were synthesized and studied in comparison with the bimetallic Pd-Rh reference sample. The alloy nanoparticles were formed on the surface of the alumina support by thermolysis of the complex salts [Rh(NH3)5Cl][Pd(NO2)4] and [Rh(NH3)5Cl]0.5[Ru(NH3)5Cl]0.5[Pd(NO2)4], preliminary deposited via an incipient wet impregnation method. The influence of the conditions of the thermolysis process on the phase composition of the final products and the size of the trimetallic particles was established. Thus, nanoscale trimetallic (Rh-Ru-Pd) alloy particles of a given composition were obtained. The catalytic performance of the alumina-supported samples was examined in a CO oxidation reaction under prompt thermal aging conditions. It was ascertained that the addition of ruthenium only improves both the initial activity and thermal stability of the catalytic system. The state of each metal in the alloy nanoparticles was characterized by diffuse reflectance UV–vis spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Carbon nanotube-modified adhesive to caries affected dentin conditioned with Nd: YAP laser, phosphoric acid, and photoactivated-erythrosine

AimDentin conditioned with phosphoric acid (PA) Nd: YAP laser, and photoactivated-Ery(Erythrosine) on microleakage, shear bond strength (SBS) degree of conversion (DC), and rheological assessment of adhesive-infused with carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Material and methodCarious ninety-six human mandibular molars were included. Specimens were disinfected and allocated into three groups based on surface pretreatment (n = 32) Group 1 (PA), Group 2 (Nd: YAP) laser, and Group 3 (Photoactivated-Ery). Conditioned groups were further divided into two 2 subgroups based on the application of unmodified ERA and CNTs-modified ERA. Composite restorations were placed on the CAD surface and thermal aging of the samples was performed. The microleakage assessment was conducted using a dye penetration test. Universal testing machine (UTM) assessed SBS bond failure was evaluated using a stereomicroscope. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses of CNT, and Fourier Transform Infrared FTIR of adhesives were performed. One-way ANOVA and Tukey post hoc analyzed the outcomes. ResultsGroup 1B samples (PA+ CNTs modified adhesive) presented the minimum marginal leakage and highest bond integrity. Group 2A (Nd:YAP laser+Unmodified adhesive) displayed the maximum scores of microleakage and lowest bond strength. ConclusionPhotoactivated Ery-PS can serve as an alternative to phosphoric acid for conditioning CAD. Incorporating CNT in adhesive significantly enhanced bond integrity and marginal seal with no significant difference in DC.

Study on the effect of multi-factor compound action on long-term tensile performance of GFRP composite pipe and life prediction analysis

In this work, the glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) composite pipes used as sewerage pipes in oil and gas field environments were studied. The accelerated aging experiments were carried out under the simulated environments of three typical oil field media which including circulating air, simulated produced water and standard simulated oil. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was adopted to observe the microscopic morphology of the aged GFRP tubes under the three conditions. The microstructural characteristics of the aged tubes and the evolution process of internal defects were also analyzed and evaluated in combination with micro-CT technology. The attenuation pattern of the hoop tensile strength of the aged pipes was measured via the separation disk method, and the service life prediction was carried out based on the Arrhenius theory with the hoop strength as the life index. The results show that the accumulation of aging time and continuous heat input will aggravate the expansion of internal pores and cause the aggregation of small-volume defects into large-volume defects. Especially in the simulated oil environment, which has the highest sensitivity to defects. The maximum porosity reaching 1.5 % and the maximum volume of individual defects exceeding 106 μm3 after aging for 4000 h at 95 °C. The thermal aging process under the three environmental conditions had similar aging characteristics, and interfacial damage of the glass fibers was observed in all of them. The variability of hydrothermal aging is related to the hydrolytic behavior of the glass fibers, which is associated with the progressive dissolution damage of the SiO2 network in the glass fibers, as well as the breaking of silane bonds. Thus, the hydrothermal environment had the most significant effect on the hoop tensile strength decay. Ultimately, 75 % strength retention was taken as the end-of-life indicator. The predicted service life based on the Arrhenius model for the three environments of thermo-oxygen, hydrothermal and simulated oil were 23.5, 23.1 and 28.5 years at 20 °C, and 12.2, 4.9 and 10.3 years at 40 °C, respectively.

Evaluation of microhardness, degree of conversion, and abrasion resistance of nanoglass and multiwalled carbon nanotubes reinforced three-dimensionally printed denture base resins.

To assess the effect of nanoglass (NG) particles and multiwalled carbon nanotubes' (MWCNTs) addition on Vickers hardness (VH), degree of conversion (DC), and abrasion resistance of 3D-printed denture base resin. 3D-printed denture base resin was reinforced using silanized NG and MWCNTs to obtain four groups: Control, 0.25 wt% NG reinforced resin, 0.25 wt% MWCNTs reinforced resin, and a combination group of 0.25 wt% of both fillers. All specimens (N = 176) were tested before and after thermal aging (600 cycles) for VH (n = 22), DC, and abrasion resistance (n = 22). Abrasion resistance specimens were subjected to 60,000 brushing strokes, and then assessed for surface roughness (Ra) and weight loss. Specimens were then scanned with a benchtop scanner before and after abrasion to produce a color map of topographical changes from superimposed images. Data were analyzed using ANOVA tests followed by Tukey post hoc test. Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare percent change among groups, followed by Dunn post hoc test (α = 0.05). The interaction between nanofiller content and thermal cycling displayed a significant effect on VH and DC. The 0.25% NG expressed the highest VH before aging but revealed the highest percent decrease after aging. Nanofiller content, thermal aging, and brushing displayed a significant interaction impact on the Ra values. The addition of nanofillers resulted in an overall improvement in resin microhardness and abrasion resistance. The 0.25% MWCNTs group revealed the lowest Ra with the least percent change in VH and DC, while the combination one displayed the least change in weight.

Effect of thermal aging on the microscale mechanical response behavior of glass fiber/epoxy composites

Effect of thermal aging on the microscale mechanical response behavior of glass fiber/epoxy composites

The impact of the environment of use on the behavior of polychlorinated (vinyl chloride).

Polymers are omnipresent in our daily life thanks to their low production cost and their ease of implementation, which makes thermoplastics more usable in supplying drinking water, distributing cold and hot water, and transporting hot corrosive fluids and industrial chemicals, including inorganic acids. The material of our study is chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC); it has better thermal insulation and a wide operating temperature range. This paper deals with the impact of thermal aging over time on the behavior of CPVC by performing two types of tests according to ISO 15877 (EN ISO 15877) two types of tests; the first is thermal aging (Fig.1) at a temperature of 95°C and a pressure of 10 bars for periods of up to 2000h and the second test exposure of the pipeline to pressure until bursting. On the basis of the test results, we can predict the rupture of the pipeline and thus avoid the dangerous accidents due to the bursting under the effect of the pressure and the high temperature; by using the results of this study, the inspectors change CPVC structures at the right time, neither too early when the part is still in good condition nor too late after failure; this will be very useful to save water and money and of course save the environment.

Thermal Treatment Effects on Structure and Mechanical Properties of Polybutylene Terephthalate and Epoxy Resin Composites Reinforced with Glass Fiber.

In this study, two types of composites, polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) and epoxy resin (ER), reinforced with 20% of glass fiber (GF) are used as the comparative research objects. Their mechanical properties after thermal aging at 85~145 °C are evaluated by tensile strength and fracture morphology analysis. The results show that the composites have similar aging laws. The tensile strength of GF/PBT and GF/ER decrease gradually with the increase of aging temperature, while their elastic moduli are independent of the thermal treatment temperature. Scanning electron microscopy study of the fracture surface shows that separation of glass fiber from PBT and ER matrix becomes more obvious at higher aging temperature. The fibers on the matrix surface appear clear and smooth, and the whole pulled out GFs can be observed. As a main mechanical strength degradation mechanism, the deterioration of interface adhesion between the matrix and GF is discussed. A large difference in coefficients of thermal expansion of the matrix and GF is a main factor of the mechanical degradation.

Endurance to Multiple Factors of Water-Based Electrically Conductive Paints with Metallic Microparticles

The paper describes the innovative adaptation of some specific environmental tests from general organic coatings towards newly developed water-based composite paints with metallic particles (Al and Fe), with a high content of metal (10% and respectively 20%) for electromagnetic shielding applications. Electrical conductivity is the most affected dielectric parameter under both by UV radiation and thermal exposure. The paints with 20% metallic powder are more sensitive to environmental factors, and the influence of metal type could also be emphasized in relation to the dielectric feature evolution vs. exposure time. The action of mold significantly decreases the dielectric features of paints, but the weathering aging effect is much more enhanced if the samples are cumulatively submitted to thermal aging and respectively UV exposure, along with the action of mold. The potential application of the study is related mainly to the development of new autonomous electric cars, which need special conditions of electromagnetic shielding, under the circumstances that the conductive paint layers are normally very sensitive to environmental factors, affecting the equipment performance and security.

Effect of Phosphate-Bridged Monomer on Thermal Oxidative Behavior of Phthalonitrile Thermosets.

Phthalonitrile thermosets are known for their excellent mechanical, physico-chemical, and fire-retardant properties, making them attractive for aerospace and mechanical engineering applications. When producing and applying phthalonitrile-based structural parts, it is essential to consider aspects such as processability and the long-term stability of the material's properties at high temperatures. In our previous studies, we demonstrated that resins containing phosphate-bridged bisphthalonitrile monomers are easily processable due to their low melting temperature and wide processing window. In this study, we investigated the impact of bis(3-(3,4-dicyanophenoxy)phenyl)phenyl phosphate (PPhPN) monomer content on physico-chemical and mechanical properties, thermal stability, and thermal oxidative stability. This research highlights the importance of conducting long-term thermal oxidative aging studies in addition to thermogravimetric analysis to properly assess the stability of thermosets. The findings indicate that adding less than 15% of PPhPN results in the formation of a crystalline phase, which impairs the resin's processability. Conversely, a high PPhPN content reduces the material's thermal oxidative stability. Therefore, based on mechanical and physico-chemical tests after thermal oxidative aging, it can be concluded that a 10-15% concentration of the phosphate-containing monomer enables easy processability of the phthalonitrile resin and provides excellent long-term thermal oxidative stability at temperatures up to 300 °C, while maintaining a flexural strength exceeding 120 MPa and an elasticity modulus of 4.3 GPa.

Investigation on rheological properties and aging mechanism of asphalt under multiple environmental conditions

Under climatic conditions such as high temperature plus ultraviolet radiation and water, the mechanical properties of asphalt pavement will be significantly attenuated. Present research mainly focused on thermal oxidation and ultraviolet radiation aging, and there were many controversies about the effect of water on the aging performance of asphalt. In addition, the relationship between the aging behavior of asphalt under complex environments and the standard PAV test needs to be further clarified. This research comprehensively evaluated the rheological properties, microscopy, and functional group of matrix asphalt, SBS, and high viscosity modified asphalt under different climatic conditions. Compared with thermal oxidation aging, daily exposure to UV radiation can increase the aging degree of matrix and modified asphalt by about 5 % and 1.5 %, respectively. Compared with thermal oxidation aging, the presence of water and the coupling effect of UV and water can reduce the aging degree of asphalt by 3.5 % and 2.6 %, respectively. After 5 days of thermal oxidation and UV coupling, the aging degree was close to or even greater than that of the PAV experiment. Asphalt aging caused an upward shift in the complex modulus master curve, and a downward shift in the phase angle master curve of matrix asphalt and high viscosity modified asphalt. Due to the synergistic effects of hardening and polymer degradation, the phase angle master curve of SBS modified asphalt showed an upward trend in the low frequency range. Under the influence of climatic conditions, the polymer of asphalt would degrade, the particle size of the polymer phase decreased, and the brightness of fluorescent image became darker. The rich polymer phase structure of high viscosity modified asphalt enabled it to maintain excellent mechanical properties even after long-term aging.

Maintenance Practices of High-Voltage Cross-Linked Polyethylene (XLPE) Cable Buffer Layers

As urbanization accelerates globally, the demand for electricity continues to rise, especially within high-voltage power transmission systems. Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) cables have become crucial due to their exceptional insulation properties and mechanical characteristics. However, the buffer layers of XLPE cables may undergo aging and faults caused by various factors, including electrical aging, thermal aging, chemical impacts, and improper design. This paper synthesizes existing literature to provide an in-depth analysis of the material properties, aging mechanisms, fault causes, design principles, and maintenance practices related to XLPE cable buffer layers. Through finite element method (FEM) simulations, it evaluates the electric field distribution across XLPE cables under different operating voltages and the contact state between the buffer layer and the metal sheath. Additionally, this study explores the recyclability and environmental impact of XLPE materials, as well as how improvements in material properties and detection technologies can enhance cable reliability and safety. The findings offer comprehensive theoretical and practical guidance to the power industry, aiding in optimizing cable design, improving system reliability, and reducing failure rates, while also suggesting future research directions.

Estimation of mode I fracture toughness of rocks exposed to different environmental conditions using simple and linear multiple regression

AbstractMode I fracture toughness (Kıc) is a critical parameter in rock mechanics that is essential for understanding how rocks behave under tensile loading and crucial for applications ranging from safety assessments to structural design in geotechnical engineering. This study comprehensively investigates the influence of various environmental conditions (dry, saturated, frozen, thermal shock and thermal aging) on the physico-mechanical properties and Kıc of rocks. The primary novelty of this study lies in its comprehensive modeling approach under diverse environmental conditions, providing a nuanced understanding of factors influencing rock fracture toughness. By extending analysis to less-studied conditions such as freezing and thermal shock cycles, the study enhances the predictive capacity of fracture toughness models in practical geotechnical applications. Physico-mechanical properties, including uniaxial compressive strength, point load strength, Brazilian tensile strength (BT), Schmidt hardness, and ultrasonic wave velocity were evaluated across different environmental scenarios. Simple and linear multiple regression models were developed using these properties to predict Kıc. Notably, BT emerged as a significant predictor in the simple regression analyzes. Ten linear multiple regression models were formulated using SPSS 20, combining mechanical tests (UCS, BT, PL) with non-destructive testing methods (Vp, Vs, SH), demonstrating robust predictive capabilities with R2 values exceeding 0.95. Performance metrics (mean absolute error, mean absolute percentage error, root mean square error) were used to verify the accuracy of the model.

Effect of initial microstructure on irradiation induced microstructure evolution in δ-ferrite in an austenitic stainless steel weld

The irradiation induced microstructure evolution of δ-ferrite in an austenitic stainless steel weld was investigated. To simulate long-term service in light water reactor (LWR) at operating temperature, accelerated thermal aging at 400 °C up to 30,000 h was performed. Then, proton irradiation up to 10 displacement per atom (dpa) was subsequently conducted for unaged and aged samples. For the unaged samples, formation of Cr-rich (α’) phase by spinodal decomposition increased with irradiation dose. Meanwhile, formation of G-phase was promoted after 1 dpa, but decreased after 10 dpa. For the aged samples, after 1 dpa irradiation, Cr-rich (α’) phase formed by spinodal decomposition during thermal aging was destroyed while population of G-phase increased. After further irradiation up to 10 dpa, α’ phase was re-precipitated and coarsened significantly, but the degree of which was significantly less compared to the unaged samples. Meanwhile, with increase of irradiation to 10 dpa, G-phase population increased for the aged samples. The difference in the evolution of microstructural features during irradiation were discussed in view of the initial microstructure of δ-ferrite.

Surface roughness of different types of resin composites after artificial aging procedures: an in vitro study

BackgroundThe temperature changes, chemical agents, and brushing activity that resin composite restorations are exposed to in the oral environment can cause changes in surface roughness. In this study, the aim was to investigate in vitro the clinical one-year surface roughness changes of different types of composites (flowable or conventional) from the same companies by subjecting them to immersion in solutions, brushing, and thermal cycling procedures to simulate intraoral conditions.MethodsFour different resin composite brands were included in the study using both their conventional (Charisma Smart, 3M Filtek Ultimate Universal, Omnichroma, Beautifil II) and flowable resin composites (Charisma Flow, 3M Filtek Ultimate Flowable, Omnichroma Flow, Beautifil Flow Plus F00), giving 4 groups with 2 types of resin composite in each. 40 samples were prepared for each group/resin type, for a total of 320 samples. After initial surface roughness measurements by a mechanical profilometer, the samples were divided into 4 subgroups (n = 10) and immersed in solutions (distilled water, tea, coffee, or wine) for 12 days. The samples were then subjected to 10,000 cycles of brushing simulation and 10,000 cycles of thermal aging. Surface roughness measurements were repeated after the procedures. For statistical analysis, the 3-way analysis of variance and the Tukey test were used (p < 0.05).ResultsIt was concluded that composite groups and types had an effect on surface roughness at time t0 (p < 0.001). At time t1, the highest surface roughness value was obtained in the Beautifil-conventional interaction. When the surface roughness values between time t0 and t1 were compared, an increase was observed in the Beautifil II and Beautifil Flow Plus F00, while a decrease was observed in the other composite groups.ConclusionComposite groups, types, and solutions had an effect on the surface roughness of resin composites. After aging procedures, it was concluded that the Beautifil group could not maintain the surface structure as it exceeded the threshold value of 0.2 μm for bacterial adhesion.

The impact of ecological aging on the mechanical performance of jute-banana fibre phenol-formaldehyde hybrid composites

Natural fiber composites provide an environmentally favorable and sustainable alternative to traditional materials, greatly reducing environmental impact. Aging tests are required to evaluate the long-term mechanical performance and durability of these composites under varied situations, ensuring their dependability and safety over time. This study investigates the effects of ecological aging on jute-banana fiber reinforced phenol-formaldehyde (JBP-F) composites. The experiment involved fabricating JBP-F composites using jute and banana fibers with varying weight ratios (60:40, 50:50, 40:60, 30:70) and subjecting them to various aging tests like long-time water resistance, accelerated water resistance, thermal aging, hydrothermal aging, soil burial test, and accelerated weathering test. The result showed that the composite with a 50:50 jute-banana fiber to resin ratio (JBP-F50) outperformed the other compositions examined in terms of aging resistance. This balanced ratio likely optimized fiber-matrix interaction, leading to superior strength and water resistance. Higher fiber content composites (like JBP-F60) absorbed more water due to weaker bonding, while lower fiber content (JBP-F30) suffered more in high temperatures. All composites experienced strength loss during thermal and hydrothermal aging due to heat and moisture cycles. JBP-F50 again showed the least degradation, possibly due to the resin’s ability to recover. In soil burial tests, biodegradation impacted strength, with higher fiber content composites (JBP-F60) degrading more. Finally, weathering tests revealed some surface deterioration due to UV radiation. However, the resin offered protection, with JBP-F30 (higher resin content) experiencing the most weight loss.JBP-F50, with its balanced fiber-resin ratio, demonstrated the best resistance to various environmental stresses, making it a promising option for sustainable composite applications.

Precipitate characteristic of modified CLF-1 steel during thermal aging at 650 ℃

The study investigates the impact of thermal aging at 650℃ on the microstructure and precipitated phase of China Low-activation Ferrite (CLF-1) steel, which has undergone titanium strengthening and thermo-mechanical treatment (TMT). High-resolution experiments were conducted to explore changes in the size, degree of coherence, and interfacial free energy of the MC phase after a 2000-hour aging duration. Additionally, Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations were employed to examine the stability differences between (Ta/V)C and TiC phases under various crystal planes. The experimental results indicated that the TiC phase exhibited three distinct manifestations: coherent but with a large size, non-coherent but with a small size, and non-coherent with a large size. Notably, higher interface free energy corresponded to lower particle stability. Through an investigation of the change in binding energy and surface energy across various crystal planes, it was discovered that certain TiC phases undergo growth and coarsening specifically under the (220) crystal planes due to variations in energy density after long-term aging. This study provides novel insights into the stability of precipitate phases, offering valuable implications for materials design.