Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence Emitters Research Articles

Effect of tert‐Butylation on the Photophysics of Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence Emitters

Thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) emitters potentially can provide organic light‐emitting diodes with 100% internal quantum efficiency by harvesting triplet excitons. Generally, TADF emitters are small molecules that are not applicable for solution processability. The addition of tert‐butyl groups to the periphery of TADF emitters has proven to improve their solubility in various organic solvents, reduce aggregation‐induced quenching, and enhance the photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY). This article studies the photophysical influence of the tert‐butyl group attached to an emitter with a carbazole acceptor and a triazine donor. The resulting t3CzTrz‐F is a blue–green TADF emitter, in which the addition of a tert‐butyl group increases the rate of reverse intersystem crossing (rISC), while simultaneously decreasing the nonradiative decay rate substantially. In addition, dilution of t3CzTrz‐F in a host matrix in film results in an enhanced PLQY, which is associated with a decrease in the nonradiative decay constant, while there is no change in the rISC rate. Through a solid‐state NMR study, the change in rISC and nonradiative rate upon tert‐butylation by enlarged intermolecular spacing and reduced vibrational and rotational freedom is rationalized, resulting in improved photophysical performance.

Pd(II)‐TADF Emitters Featuring Multiple Intramolecular Noncovalent Interactions: Toward Organic Light‐Emitting Diodes with EQEs up to 31.5% and Operational Half‐Lifetimes Exceeding 1600 h at 3000 cd m−2

AbstractThe second‐row transition metal complexes have been much less exploited as emitters for organic light‐emitting diodes (OLEDs). Despite the considerable efforts to develop phosphorescent Pd(II) complexes by ligand design, the triplet excited states of Pd(II) complexes usually have very long lifetimes because of their ligand‐centered nature. Hereina panel of sandwich‐type mononuclear Pd(II) complexes is reported, namely PdDDBPZ, PdDTRZ, and PdDPYR, which exhibit strong yellow to red thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) with photoluminescence quantum yields (PLQYs) of 87–94% in doped films. The metal ion plays a perturbing role in the intraligand charge transfer excited state dynamics, giving rise to accelerated reverse intersystem crossing (RISC). Owing to the space‐confined sandwich configuration, there are multiple noncovalent interactions within the molecules, which are qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed by theoretical calculations. The Pd(II) complexes show high device efficiencies with external quantum efficiencies (EQEs) up to 31.5%. The ultralow efficiency roll‐off is as low as 1% at 1000 cd m−2. The device operational stability test for PdDTRZ reveals a half‐lifetime (LT50) of 1615 h at an initial luminance of 3000 cd m−2. The leverage of metal‐promoted TADF mechanism together with intramolecular noncovalent interactions proves feasible for developing practical Pd(II)‐TADF emitters toward OLEDs.

Multireference Ab Initio Calculations on Excited Electronic States of Carbazole-Based Organic Compounds for Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence.

The emerging technology of organic light-emitting diodes takes advantage of the thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) mechanism for improved efficiency. Carbazole-based organic molecules are suitable for TADF emission because of charge transfer excitations between the electron-donor carbazole and an electron-acceptor unit. Computational design of new TADF molecules with the desired properties is challenging because charge-transfer excitations cannot be predicted accurately by time-dependent density functional theory. Four groups of carbazole-based donor-acceptor molecules have been studied using multireference ab initio methods to understand the nature of excited electronic states. The state-averaged complete active space self-consistent field (SA-CASSCF) and the N-electron valence state perturbation theory (NEVPT2) were used to calculate energies and oscillator strengths for multiple excited electronic states. The number of active electrons and orbitals and the number of excited states included in state-averaged CASSCF were selected such that the accuracy of ab initio predictions could be improved systematically. The procedure introduced here for the calculation of multiple excited electronic states of TADF candidates can be used to accelerate the computational search for efficient TADF materials.

85‐3: Machine Learning Strategy Towards Inverse Design of Blue TADF Emitter: Training Excited State Properties Based on Density Functional Theory Calculations

We introduce inverse design strategy utilizing machine learning (ML) models to discover efficient blue thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) organic emitter materials. Here, we leverage graph neural network (GNN) to predict the characteristic intrinsic materials properties of TADF such as excited state energy levels and their transition properties. The GNN model is trained based on density‐functional theory (DFT) calculation results to meet the TADF properties. We discuss consistency between experimental observation and ML predictions, and examined conditions for improving the accuracy of DFT calculations and ML models on top of it.

Excited-State Engineering Enables Efficient Deep-Blue Light-Emitting Diodes Exhibiting BT.2020 Color Gamut.

Organic luminescent materials that exhibit thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) can convert non-emissive triplet excitons into emissive singlet states through a reverse intersystem crossing (RISC) process. Therefore, they have tremendous potential for applications in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). However, with the development of ultra-high definition 4K/8K display technologies, designing efficient deep-blue TADF materials to achieve the Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage (CIE) coordinates fulfilling BT.2020 remains a significant challenge. Here, an effective approach is proposed to design deep-blue TADF molecules based on hybrid long- and short-range charge-transfer by incorporation of multiple donor moieties into organoboron multiple resonance acceptors. The resulting TADF molecule exhibits deep-blue emission at 414nm with a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 29nm, together with a thousand-fold increase in RISC rate. OLEDs based on the champion material achieve a record maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 22.8% with CIE coordinates of (0.163, 0.046), approaching the coordinates of the BT.2020 blue standard. Moreover, TADF-assisted fluorescence devices employing the designed material as a sensitizer exhibit an exceptional EQE of 33.1%. This work thus provides a blueprint for future development of efficient deep-blue TADF emitters, representing an important milestone towards meeting the blue color gamut standard of BT.2020.

Impact of Surrounding Environment on Hot‐Exciton Based Organic Emitters for TADF Applications

AbstractUnderstanding thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) in solid‐state environments is crucial for practical applications. However, limited research focuses on how the medium affects TADF properties of hot‐exciton‐based emitters. In our study, we calculated and compared reverse intersystem crossing, radiative, and non‐radiative decay rates of TADF emitters in gas, solvent, and solid phases. The designed emitters have a donor‐acceptor‐donor (D‐A‐D) structure, with donors such as triphenylamine (TPA) and diphenylamine thiophene (ThPA), combined with acceptors such as benzothiadiazole (BT), pyridine thiadiazole (PT) and thiadiazolobenzopyridine (NPT). We model the solvent and solid phases with the polarizable continuum model (PCM) and quantum mechanical/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) methods, respectively. Using density functional theory (DFT) and time‐dependent DFT, we analyze how TADF emitters′ geometrical, electronic, and excited‐state properties vary in these phases. Our results show that the solid‐state environment significantly influences the geometry and TADF properties of emitters. In the presence of solid medium, our study indicates that non‐radiative decay rates tend to be slower. On the other hand, radiative emission rates were found to be less influenced by the properties of the surrounding medium. Overall, our study connects emitter chemical structure and the surrounding environment‘s impact on excited‐state characteristics and photochemical properties.

Fine tuning of excited states by trifluoromethylphenyl for blue-shifted color and enhanced EQEs in thermally activated delayed fluorescence emitters

3,6-di-tert-butyl-9H-carbazole and 3,6-diphenyl-9H-carbazole have been widely used to construct blue thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) emitters. However, it is difficult for related emitters to achieve maximum external quantum efficiency (EQEmax) above 20 % with the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) y ≤ 0.12. A new type of donor was developed to construct blue TADF molecules, namely CF3P-BuCz-TRZ and CF3P-PhCz-TRZ. The weak electron-withdrawing trifluoromethylphenyl (CF3P) with moderate steric hindrance was introduced into the 1-site of carbazole donor for improving the color purity for blue TADF emitters. More importantly, the introduction of CF3P tightly compacts the energy levels for the significant excited states in RISC process. The energy gap between the lowest singlet excited (S1) state and the lowest triplet (T1) state (Δ E(S1−T1)), as well as between T1 and the higher triplet (Tn, n ≥ 2) states (Δ E(Tn−T1)) were reduced, so that Tn (n ≥ 2) could be effectively harvested to further promote reverse intersystem crossing (RISC). As a result, the OLEDs based on CF3P-BuCz-TRZ and CF3P-PhCz-TRZ displayed blue electroluminescence with CIE coordinates of (0.156, 0.107) and (0.155, 0.115). In particular, the maximum EQEs of the CF3P-PhCz-TRZ device reached 20.43 % without employing any light out-coupling enhancement or TADF-sensitized structure. This strategy should be valuable for designing more pure-blue and deep-blue TADF emitters.

Structure Engineering of Acridine Donor to Optimize Color Purity of Blue Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence Emitters.

9,9-Dimethyl-9,10-dihydroacridine (DMAC) is one of the most widely used electron donor for constructing high-performance thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) emitters. However, DMAC-based emitters often suffer from the imperfect color purity, particularly in blue emitters, due to its strong electron-donating capability. To modulate donor strength, 2,7-F-Ph-DMAC and 2,7-CF3-Ph-DMAC were designed by introducing the electron-withdrawing 2-fluorophenyl and 2-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl at the 2,7-positions of DMAC. These donors were used, in combination with 2,4,6-triphenyl-1,3,5-triazine (TRZ) acceptor, to develop novel TADF emitters 2,7-F-Ph-DMAC-TRZ and 2,7-CF3-Ph-DMAC-TRZ. Compared to the F- or CF3-free reference emitter, both two emitters showed hypsochromic effect in fluorescence and comparable photoluminescence quantum yields without sacrificing the reverse intersystem crossing rate constants. In particular, 2,7-CF3-Ph-DMAC-TRZ based OLED exhibited a blue shift by up to 39 nm and significantly improved Commission International de l'Éclairage (CIE) coordinates from (0.36, 0.55) to (0.22, 0.41), while the external quantum efficiency kept stable at about 22.5 %. This donor engineering strategy should be valid for improving the color purity of large amount of acridine based TADF emitters. It can be predicted that pure blue TADF emitters should be feasible if these F- or CF3-modifed acridine donors are combined with other weaker electron acceptors.

Modulating the Locally Excited States with a Regulating Substituent for Highly Efficient Red/Near‐Infrared Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence Emitters

AbstractDeveloping highly efficient red/near‐infrared (NIR) thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) materials is important for organic light‐emitting diodes (OLEDs). Here, two TADF emitters, APTT and APTI, which have the same D/A backbone but different attaching groups at acenaphtho‐[1,2‐b]pyrazine‐8,9‐dicarbonitrile (APDC) core, are reported. The appended regulating groups can not only suppress the D/A rotation due to the space confinement effects but also modulate the locally excited triplet state (3LE). The improved molecular rigidity suppresses the non‐radiative process, accounting for the improved photoluminescence quantum yields (PLQYs), while the modulated 3LE promotes the reverse intersystem crossing (RISC) process due to the high utilization efficiency of triplets. Consequently, both APTT and APTI demonstrate high PLQY and fast RISC process, thereby enhancing TADF efficiency. The doped devices based on APTT and APTI achieve maximum external quantum efficiency (EQEmax) values of 20.5% and 25.4% with emission peaks at 664 and 670 nm, respectively. The non‐doped devices of APTT and APTI achieve the EQEmax of 2.8% and 2.9% with emission peaks at 788 and 794 nm, respectively. Encouragingly, the non‐doped devices of APTI have set new records for near‐infrared TADF OLEDs based on the APDC core. This study provides an efficient approach to modulating the optoelectronic properties of highly efficient NIR TADF OLEDs.

Photophysical Studies of a Zr(IV) Complex with Two Pyrrolide-Based Tetradentate Schiff Base Ligands.

The reaction of two equivalents of N,N'-bis(2-pyrrolylmethylidene)-1,2-phenylenediamine (H2bppda) with tetrabenzylzirconium provided the air- and moisture-stable eight-coordinate complex Zr(bppda)2. Temperature-dependent steady-state and time-resolved emission spectroscopy established weak photoluminescence (ΦPL = 0.4% at 293 K) by a combination of prompt fluorescence and thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) upon visible light excitation at and around room temperature. TADF emission is strongly quenched by 3O2 and shows highly temperature-sensitive emission lifetimes of hundreds of microseconds. The lifetime of the lowest energy singlet excited state, S1, was established by transient absorption spectroscopy and shows rapid deactivation (τ = 142 ps) by prompt fluorescence and intersystem crossing to the triplet state, T1. Time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) calculations predict moderate ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) contributions of 25-30% for the S1 and T1 states. A comparison of Zr(bppda)2 to related zirconium pyridine dipyrrolide complexes, Zr(PDP)2, revealed important electronic structure changes due to the eight-coordinate ligand environment in Zr(bppda)2, which were correlated to differences in the photophysical properties between the two compound classes.

Acceptor-σ-donor-σ-acceptor host material for red phosphorescent and thermally activated delayed fluorescent OLEDs

A novel bipolar host molecule di-spiro [fluorene-9,5′-quinolino [3,2,1-de] acridine-9′,9″-fluorene]-2,2″,7,7″-tetracarbonitrile (QACN) featuring an Acceptor-σ-Donor-σ-Acceptor structure was developed. Systematic investigations into its photophysical, electrochemical, and thermal properties unveiled exceptional thermal stability, a three-dimensional spatial configuration, and bipolar carrier transport capability. Employing QACN as the host material in red phosphorescent and thermally activated delayed fluorescent (TADF) organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) yielded a maximum external quantum efficiency of 25.3 % and 16.5 %, respectively. Compared with the commercial material TPBi (EQE = 12.0 %, λEL = 668 nm) and mCP (EQE = 14.5 %, λEL = 652 nm), the TADF OLEDs based on QACN achieved a higher EQE and a large red-shift emission (EQE = 16.5 %, λEL = 694 nm). These findings underscore the potential of QACN as an effective host material for red phosphorescent and TADF emitters and provide a new auxiliary finesse for realizing deep red and near-infrared (NIR) OLEDs.

Developing sensitized green fluorescence for efficient, stable narrowband organic light emitting diodes

AbstractThe thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) or phosphorescence‐sensitized organic light‐emitting diodes (OLEDs) based on multi‐resonance TADF (MR‐TADF) emitters are greatly studied to develop an effective narrowband emitting system for wide color gamut display applications. However, developing pure green OLEDs to meet BT2020 and NTSC requirements is challenging. In this study, we investigated the TADF and phosphorescence‐sensitized OLEDs based on two green MR‐TADF final emitters, namely, BpIC‐DPA and BpIC‐Cz. The unique molecular structure of these emitters resulted in a pure green emission with narrow full width at half‐maximum (FWHM) and high PLQY in both solution and solid state. Notably, under optimal conditions, the BpIC‐Cz‐based OLEDs demonstrated a maximum external quantum efficiency (EQEmax) of 25.7% with alleviated efficiency roll‐off characteristics even at high luminescence (EQE5000 nits = 22.6%). The corresponding CIE coordinates are almost at the level of BT2020 and NTSC green‐color industrial standards. Additionally, the BpIC‐Cz‐based device displayed remarkable stability as seen by a noticeably longer device lifetime (LT90) of 25.3 h at a high initial luminance of 5000 nits.

Multifunctional Deep-Blue Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence Based on an Oxygen-Bridged Boron Acceptor for Highly Efficient Organic Light-Emitting Diodes.

Until now, thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) materials based on bridged boron-based acceptors have been primarily developed as dopants. However, in this study, we synthesized and characterized multifunctional deep-blue TADF materials─t-OBO-DMAC and t-OBO-DPAC─using bridged boron-based acceptors in combination with dimethylacridine or diphenylacridine as donors. These materials serve as both dopants and hosts. Theoretical calculations and experimentally measured photophysical properties of t-OBO-DMAC reveal a smaller singlet-triplet energy difference, higher photoluminescence quantum yield, and more efficient reverse intersystem crossing compared to t-OBO-DPAC. When evaluated as TADF emitters, t-OBO-DMAC and t-OBO-DPAC exhibited maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 14.4 and 7.3% with deep-blue color coordinates of (0.14, 0.11) and (0.15, 0.07), respectively. Both materials were further assessed as hosts in various configurations, including host-only, TADF, phosphorescent, and phosphor-sensitized fluorescence (PSF)-emitting systems. Notably, t-OBO-DMAC demonstrated a high maximum EQE of 13.9% with deep-blue color coordinates of (0.15, 0.07) in a nondoped host-only device. Remarkably, both materials achieved EQEs exceeding 20% in the PSF devices. Our study marks a critical advancement in the field that breaks the conventional boundaries of the dopant and host and demonstrates unprecedented multifunctionalities for advanced organic light-emitting diodes.

9-Borafluoren-9-yl and diphenylboron tetracoordinate complexes of 8-quinolinolato ligands with heavy-atoms substituents: Synthesis, fluorescence and application in OLED devices

This work describes the synthesis and characterisation of new tetrahedral boron complexes, incorporating bromine- or iodine-substituted 8-quinolinolato chelate chromophores connected to 9-borafluoren-9-yl or diphenylboron orthogonal fragments. The molecular features and photophysical properties of these complexes are analysed in both solution and solid state. Steady-state photophysical studies reveal photoluminescence quantum yields (Φf) ranging from 0.02 to 0.15 and prompt fluorescence (PF) lifetimes (τf) between 2 and 16 ns. Time-resolved photophysical experiments show the presence of delayed fluorescence (DF) and phosphorescence at both 77 K and room temperature. The DF intensity increases with a rise in temperature. This variation is ascribed to an enhancement in the intersystem crossing (ISC) process promoted by the bromine or iodine heavy-atom effect. Investigations into the dependence of DF intensity relative to the excitation dose indicate emissions stemming either from Triplet-Triplet Annihilation (TTA), Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence (TADF), or a combination of these competing mechanisms. The effect is related to the size and number of heavy-atom substituents in each boron complex. A study of the DF emission intensity as a function of the excitation dose reveals that diiodo-substituted 8-quinolinolato boron complexes, whether rigid or flexible, display TADF emission. Rigid 5,7-dibromo- and 5-chloro-7-iodo-substituted 8-quinolinolato complexes exhibit a combined TADF-TTA mechanism, whereas the other complexes predominantly demonstrate pure TTA emission. DFT and TDDFT calculations showed that the ground state structures reproduced the experimental geometries and only small increases in bond lengths were observed in the excited state geometries. The low energy absorption bands displayed mainly intra-ligand π→π* (8-quinolinato) character. The fluorescence emission energies were well reproduced, while the singlet-triplet energy gaps were relatively high and spin-orbit coupling was relevant for complexes with heavy-atoms. Ultimately, organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are fabricated using the most luminescent boron complexes. The best OLED is obtained when using complex 3a, which displays green electroluminescence (EL) (λEL = 502 nm) with maximum external quantum efficiency (EQEmax) of 2.5% and maximum luminance (Lmax) of 2200 cd m−2.

Guest‐Induced Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence Organic Supramolcular Macrocycle Scintillators for High‐Resolution X‐Ray Imaging

AbstractOrganic scintillators, pivotal in security and medical applications, face challenges due to limited X‐ray absorption and exciton utilization. Herein, a novel class of organic scintillators is introduced, named guest‐induced thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) within supramolecular macrocycles via host‐guest through‐space charge transfer (TSCT). Four co‐crystals are obtained through orthogonal crystallizations involving calix[3]acridan (C[3]A) and calix[3]phenothiazine (C[3]P) macrocycles as hosts, along with 1,2‐dicyanobenzene (DCB) and 4‐bromo‐1,2‐benzenedicarbonitrile (BrDCB) as guests. Interestingly, DCB@C[3]A and BrDCB@C[3]A co‐crystals exhibit strong host‐guest TSCT with reduced single‐triplet energy gap for efficient TADF emission, which leads to enhanced exciton utilization and X‐ray absorption, yielding radioluminescence intensities over 29 and 25 times higher than C[3]A. Similarly, substituting C[3]A with C[3]P, the obtained TADF co‐crystals also outperform C[3]P in scintillation performance. Additionally, the scintillation color of co‐crystals can be adjusted by varying the electron‐donating abilities of macrocycles and the electron‐accepting abilities of guests, offering a simpler color‐tuning mechanism than covalent‐bonded scintillators. Furthermore, the flexible film based on DCB@C[3]A exhibits promising application in X‐ray radiography, showcasing a high spatial resolution of 20 lp mm−1 @MTF = 0.77. The innovative strategy of fabricating organic scintillators via reversible non‐covalent interactions presents a novel solution for designing color‐tunable and high‐performance scintillators.

Analytical description of the charge-to-photon conversion efficiency for electroluminescent devices based on thermally activated delayed fluorescence

The efficiency of electroluminescent devices based on thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) is a complex interplay of spin-allowed radiative and nonradiative singlet and triplet recombination as well as spin-flip (reverse) intersystem crossing processes. An analytical description of exciton dynamics based on the various singlet and triplet transition rates would strongly facilitate the evaluation of the effects of different processes on device performance. We present unified and analytical expressions for the exciton densities, photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY), and charge-to-photon (CTP) conversion efficiency in TADF-based electroluminescent devices. The derivation is based on a three-level model that can also be applied to conventional fluorescence- or phosphorescence-based devices. The model allows us to analytically calculate the fundamental kinetic rates in TADF systems as well as the CTP efficiency in devices with only PLQY and transient photoluminescence decay as experimental inputs. Evaluation of the individual kinetic processes reveals that TADF emitters with PLQY as high as around 90% that exhibit pronounced delayed fluorescence, intuitively treated as potential candidates for high-performance electroluminescent devices, can still result in a CTP efficiency of only 50%–60% due to the direct competition between triplet recombination and reverse intersystem crossing. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Fluorene-carbazole-based hyperbranched polymers with linear red TADF chromophores for high-efficiency white and red electroluminescent devices

Solution-processed polymer light emitting devices (PLEDs) using high-quality thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) polymers as the emitting layers are attractive, however, high-efficiency white-light TADF polymers are very rare because of the complicated radiative transition channels. In this study, a series of hyperbranched TADF conjugated polymers were designed and synthesized which adopted the linear D-A-type TADF emitter of 1,8-naphthalimide-acridine as red chromophores, conjugated poly(fluorene-carbazole) as the blue backbone and triphenylamine as the hyperbranched cores. By adjusting the appropriate feed ratios of monomers, energy transfer process from the blue backbone to the red chromophores could be regulated and HR0.8 film had the highest photoluminescent quantum yield of 24%. Consequently, its doped electroluminescent device showed the cold-white emission with the CIE color coordinates of (0.35, 0.23) and the maximum EQE of 6.82%. By simply raising the concentration of the red chromophore in the polymers, the rapid reverse intersystem crossing (RISC) process and the enlarged energy gap between S1 and T1 were achievable.

Spring Lock: Constructing Cluster Emitters with Colorful TADF from Non‐Conjugated Polymaleimide Helical Chains

AbstractNon‐conjugated luminescent polymers have received much attention due to their excellent flexibility, processability, and biocompatibility. However, the single emission color and low solid‐state luminescence efficiency restrict their further development. Herein, by introducing carboxyl‐terminated alkyl chains on the rigid and helical polymaleimide backbone, a series of non‐conjugated luminescent polymers are designed and synthesized. Due to the “spring lock” formed by the synergism of scalable helical main chains and flexible alkyl side chains, these polymers exhibit effective cluster luminescence with thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) property, thereby significantly improving the solid‐state luminescence efficiency with the quantum yield up to 59.6%. The TADF emission wavelengths of the polymer powders can be tuned from 498 to 639 nm through changing reaction solvents, because the conformation of helical chains forming clusters is sensitive to solvent polarity. Interestingly, metal ions can induce the polymers to construct self‐repairing cluster luminescence gels, which show excellent potential applications in ammonia detection and information encryption. This work not only provides an effective design strategy for the colorful cluster luminescence with high‐efficiency TADF, but also further reveals the cluster luminescence mechanism and enlightens the promising applications of cluster luminescent gels.

Triarylborane-based thermally activated delayed fluorescence materials with an efficient reverse intersystem crossing

Efficient reverse intersystem crossing (RISC) is an important process for thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) to suppress efficiency roll-off in organic LEDs (OLEDs). Enhancing spin–orbit coupling is effective for fast RISC and is achieved by mediating a locally excited triplet state when RISC occurs between charge transfer states. Here, we experimentally confirmed that efficient RISC occurred in triarylborane-based TADF emitters named Phox- Me π , Phox- MeO π , and MeO3 Ph- FMe π . The three emitters showed large RISC rate constants exceeding 106 s−1. The Phox- Me π -based OLED exhibited higher maximum external quantum efficiency (EQEmax = 10.0%) compared to the Phox- MeO π -based OLED (EQEmax = 6.7%).

Two-Coordinate Thermally Activated Delayed Fluorescence Coinage Metal Complexes: Molecular Design, Photophysical Characters, and Device Application.

Since the emergence of the first green light emission from a fluorescent thin-film organic light emitting diode (OLED) in the mid-1980s, a global consumer market for OLED displays has flourished over the past few decades. This growth can primarily be attributed to the development of noble metal phosphorescent emitters that facilitated remarkable gains in electrical conversion efficiency, a broadened color gamut, and vibrant image quality for OLED displays. Despite these achievements, the limited abundance of noble metals in the Earth's crust has spurred ongoing efforts to discover cost-effective electroluminescent materials. One particularly promising avenue is the exploration of thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF), a mechanism with the potential to fully harness excitons in OLEDs. Recently, investigations have unveiled TADF in a series of two-coordinate coinage metal (Cu, Ag, and Au) complexes. These organometallic TADF materials exhibit distinctive behavior in comparison to their organic counterparts. They offer benefits such as tunable emissive colors, short TADF emission lifetimes, high luminescent quantum yields, and reasonable stability. Impressively, both vacuum-deposited and solution-processed OLEDs incorporating these materials have achieved outstanding performance. This review encompasses various facets on two-coordinate TADF coinage metal complexes, including molecular design, photophysical characterizations, elucidation of structure-property relationships, and OLED applications.