Thermal Uplift Research Articles

The gateway to Africa: What determines sea crossing performance of a migratory soaring bird at the Strait of Gibraltar?

Large bodies of water represent major obstacles for the migration of soaring birds because thermal updrafts are absent or weak over water. Soaring birds are known to time their water crossings with favourable weather conditions and there are records of birds falling into the water and drowning in large numbers. However, it is still unclear how environmental factors, individual traits and trajectory choices affect their water crossing performance, this being important to understand the fitness consequences of water barriers for this group of birds. We addressed this problem using the black kite Milvus migrans as model species at a major migration bottleneck, the Strait of Gibraltar. We recorded high-resolution GPS and triaxial accelerometer data for 73 birds while crossing the Strait of Gibraltar, allowing the determination of sea crossing duration, length, altitude, speed and tortuosity, the flapping behaviour of birds and their failed crossing attempts. These parameters were modelled against wind speed and direction, time of the day, solar irradiance (proxy of thermal uplift), starting altitude and distance to Morocco, and age and sex of birds. We found that sea crossing performance of black kites is driven by their age, the wind conditions, the starting altitude and distance to Morocco. Young birds made longer sea crossings and reached lower altitude above the sea than adults. Crosswinds promoted longer sea crossings, with birds reaching lower altitudes and with higher flapping effort. Birds starting at lower altitudes were more likely to quit or made higher flapping effort to complete the crossing. The location where birds started the sea crossings impacted crossing distance and duration. We present evidence that explains why migrating soaring birds accumulate at sea passages during adverse weather conditions. Strong crosswinds during sea crossings force birds to extended flap-powered flight at low altitude, which may increase their chances of falling in the water. We also showed that juvenile birds assume more risks than adults. Finally, the way in which birds start the sea crossing is crucial for their success, particularly the starting altitude, which dictates how far birds can reach with reduced flapping effort.

Causes and consequences of facultative sea crossing in a soaring migrant

Abstract Studying the causes and consequences of route selection in animal migration is important for understanding the evolution of migratory systems and how they may be affected by environmental factors at various spatial and temporal scales. One key decision during migration is whether to cross ‘high transport cost’ areas or to circumvent them. Soaring birds may face this choice when encountering waterbodies where convective updrafts are weak or scarce. Crossing these waterbodies requires flying using energetically costly flapping flight, while circumventing them over land permits energetically cheap soaring. We tested how several atmospheric factors (e.g. wind, thermal uplift) and geographic, seasonal and state‐related factors (sex and age) affected route selection in migrating white storks Ciconia ciconia. We used 196 GPS tracks of 70 individuals either crossing or circumventing the north‐easternmost section of the Mediterranean Sea, over Iskenderun Bay in southern Turkey. We found that westward and southward winds promoted a cross‐bay journey in spring and autumn, respectively, acting as tailwinds. Also, overall weaker winds promoted a sea crossing in spring. Sea crossing was associated with flapping flight and higher values of overall dynamic body acceleration and resulted in higher ground speed than travel over land. The combined environmental conditions and the effects of route selection on movement‐related energy costs and speed were likely responsible for an increase in the time spent flying and distance travelled of migrating storks that decided to cross the bay during spring. Notably, daily travel distances of spring migrants crossing the bay were 60 km longer than those of land‐detouring birds, allowing them to reach their destination faster but likely incurring a higher energetic flight cost. No such benefit was found during autumn. Our findings confirm that atmospheric conditions can strongly affect bird route selection. Consequently, migration timing, speed and movement‐related energy expenditure differed considerably between the two migratory seasons and the two route choices, highlighting a time‐energy trade‐off in the migration of white storks. A free plain language summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

Dynamic-Parameter Movement Models Reveal Drivers of Migratory Pace in a Soaring Bird

Long distance migration can increase lifetime fitness, but can be costly, incurring increased energetic expenses and higher mortality risks. Stopover and other en route behaviors allow animals to rest and replenish energy stores and avoid or mitigate other hazards during migration. Some animals, such as soaring birds, can subsidize the energetic costs of migration by extracting energy from flowing air. However, it is unclear how these energy sources affect or interact with behavioral processes and stopover in long-distance soaring migrants. To understand these behaviors and the effects of processes that might enhance use of flight subsidies, we developed a flexible mechanistic model to predict how flight subsidies drive migrant behavior and movement processes. The novel modeling framework incorporated time-varying parameters informed by environmental covariates to characterize a continuous range of behaviors during migration. This model framework was fit to GPS satellite telemetry data collected from a large soaring and opportunist foraging bird, the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), during migration in western North America. Fitted dynamic model parameters revealed a clear circadian rhythm in eagle movement and behavior, which was directly related to thermal uplift. Behavioral budgets were complex, however, with evidence for a joint migrating/foraging behavior, resembling a slower paced fly-and-forage migration, which could facilitate efficient refueling while still ensuring migration progress. In previous work, ecological and foraging conditions are normally considered to be the key aspects of stopover location quality, but taxa, such as the golden eagle, that can tap energy sources from moving fluids to drive migratory locomotion may pace migration based on both foraging opportunities and available flight subsidies.

Numerical Modeling of Weathering, Erosion, Sedimentation, and Uplift in a Triple Junction Divergent Margin

AbstractThe majority of numerical models of landscape evolution in divergent margins are focused on the simulation of margins with simplified lithological control on landscape erosion. However, this approach is insufficient to study the evolution of margins where chemical weathering is an important element increasing rock resistance to physical erosion. One example of this margin is the Borborema Province, northeastern Brazil, where postrift marine sediments are now preserved at elevations ∼700–800 m in up to 1‐km‐high plateaus capped by duricrust layers. The landscape evolution of these uplifted sedimentary basins still eludes explanation. Here we use numerical models that couple weathering, erosion, sedimentation, sea level changes, flexural isostasy, and thermal effects due to lithospheric stretching to simulate the tectonosedimentary evolution of the Borborema Province since the onset of continental stretching during the Lower Cretaceous. These numerical experiments reveal that nearly 70% of the postrift regional uplift observed in the Borborema Province can be explained by differential denudation of the continent and flexural rebound of the lithosphere. The remaining ∼250 m of uplift can be explained by thermal uplift induced by partial erosion of the base of the continental lithosphere under the Borborema Province due to edge‐driven convection, in accordance with the anomalously thin continental lithosphere observed under the Borborema Province. Additionally, the numerical results can explain the regional pattern of fission track ages by the combined effect of differential denudation and flexural rebound in this geometrically complex margin.

Seismic stratigraphy of the post-breakup succession offshore Northeast Greenland: Links to margin uplift

The timing of the continental breakup between Norway and Greenland and the subsequent plate tectonic motions are well understood. However, due to the remote location of the Northeast Greenland shelf, relatively few details about the tectonosedimentary response to the tectonism following the breakup have previously been published. This article gives new insights into the structural and sedimentary history of the Northeast Greenland shelf, with an emphasis on the post-breakup tectonics, using state of the art 2D seismic data. The results of this study clearly shows a highly dynamic post-breakup tectonic setting with pronounced, kilometre-scale fault offsets, tilting of the Danmarkshavn Basin and pronounced progradational events. The tectonosedimentary events are linked with the passage of the Icelandic mantle plume south of the Northeast Greenland shelf. Based on tectonostratigraphic interpretations and integration of data from ODP 913, this study constructs a temporally robust model for the post-breakup succession. Significant post-breakup uplift and tectonism related to thermal uplift is present on the margin. It is observed that the Icelandic hot spot passes relatively close by the Northeast Greenland shelf (<500 Km) during the Cenozoic. Its passage south of the shelf supports the observation of the northwards tilt of the shelf and associated northwards shift of the prograding clinoforms due to a combination of thermal uplift and possibly dynamic topography.

Wind turbines cause functional habitat loss for migratory soaring birds.

Wind energy production has expanded to meet climate change mitigation goals, but negative impacts of wind turbines have been reported on wildlife. Soaring birds are among the most affected groups with alarming fatality rates by collision with wind turbines and an escalating occupation of their migratory corridors. These birds have been described as changing their flight trajectories to avoid wind turbines, but this behaviour may lead to functional habitat loss, as suitable soaring areas in the proximity of wind turbines will likely be underused. We modelled the displacement effect of wind turbines on black kites (Milvus migrans) tracked by GPS. We also evaluated the impact of this effect at the scale of the landscape by estimating how much suitable soaring area was lost to wind turbines. We used state-of-the-art tracking devices to monitor the movements of 130 black kites in an area populated by wind turbines, at the migratory bottleneck of the Strait of Gibraltar. Landscape use by birds was mapped from GPS data using dynamic Brownian bridge movement models, and generalized additive mixed modelling was used to estimate the effect of wind turbine proximity on bird use while accounting for orographic and thermal uplift availability. We found that areas up to approximately 674m away from the turbines were less used than expected given their uplift potential. Within that distance threshold, bird use decreased with the proximity to wind turbines. We estimated that the footprint of wind turbines affected 3%-14% of the areas suitable for soaring in our study area. We present evidence that the impacts of wind energy industry on soaring birds are greater than previously acknowledged. In addition to the commonly reported fatalities, the avoidance of turbines by soaring birds causes habitat losses in their movement corridors. Authorities should recognize this further impact of wind energy production and establish new regulations that protect soaring habitat. We also showed that soaring habitat for birds can be modelled at a fine scale using publicly available data. Such an approach can be used to plan low-impact placement of turbines in new wind energy developments.

Migrating ospreys use thermal uplift over the open sea.

Most large raptors on migration avoid crossing the sea because of the lack of atmospheric convection over temperate seas. The osprey Pandion haliaetus is an exception among raptors, since it can fly over several hundred kilometres of open water. We equipped five juvenile ospreys with GPS-Accelerometer-Magnetometer loggers. All birds were able to find and use thermal uplift while crossing the Mediterranean Sea, on average 7.5 times per 100 km, and could reach altitudes of 900 m above the sea surface. Their climb rate was 1.6 times slower than over land, and birds kept flapping most of the time while circling in the thermals, indicating that convections cells were weaker than over land. The frequency of thermal soaring was correlated with the difference between the sea surface and air temperature, indicating that atmospheric convection occurred when surface waters were warmer than the overlaying air. These observations help explain the transoceanic cosmopolitan distribution of osprey, and question the widely held assumption that water bodies represent strict barriers for large raptors.

Integration of the outcrop and subsurface geochemical data: implications for the hydrocarbon source rock evaluation in the Lower Indus Basin, Pakistan

The present study details the hydrocarbon source rock geochemistry and organic petrography of the outcrop and subsurface samples of the Middle Jurassic Chiltan Formation and the Lower Cretaceous Sembar Formation from the Sann #1 well Central and Southern Indus Basin, Pakistan. The total organic carbon (TOC), Rock–Eval pyrolysis, vitrinite reflectance (Ro) % and Maceral analysis techniques were used and various geochemical plots were constructed to know the quality of source rock, type of kerogen, level of maturity and migration history of the hydrocarbons. The outcrop and Sann #1 well data on the Sembar Formation reveals poor, fair, good and very good quality of the TOC, type II–III kerogen, immature–mature organic matter and an indigenous hydrocarbon generation potential. The outcrop and Sann #1 well data on the Chiltan Formation show a poor–good quality of TOC, type II–III kerogen, immature–mature source rock quality and having an indigenous hydrocarbon generation potential. The vitrinite reflectance [Ro (%)] values and Maceral types [fluorescent amorphous organic matter, exinite, alginite and inertnite] demonstrate that maturity in both Sembar and the Chiltan formation at surface and subsurface fall in the oil and gas generation zone to cracking of oil to gas condensate zone. Recurrence of organic rich and poor intervals within the Sembar and Chiltan formation are controlled by the Late Jurassic thermal uplift preceding the Indo-Madagascar separation from the Afro-Arabian Plate and Early Cretaceous local transgressive–regressive cycles. From the current study, it is concluded that both Sembar and Chiltan formation can act as a potential hydrocarbon source rock in the study area.

Study on the relationship between multi-stage strike-slip mechanism and basin evolution in Fangzheng fault depression

Fangzheng fault depression is controlled by the northern of the Tan-Lu fault zone. It undergoes multi-stage strike-slip, extrusion modification, and erosion of the thermal uplift, forming a tectonic pattern of uplifts connected with sags. Through the regional dynamic analysis, the study of the activity law of the western Pacific plate has clarified the formation and transformation of the regional tectonic stress field. Under the background of the multi-stage of the strike-slip mechanism in the northern part of the Tan-lu fault, the Fangzheng fault depression has a characteristic of the “left-lateral strike-slip pull-apart basin, right-lateral strike-slip extrusion transformation.” According to the difference of the strike-slip, the Fangzheng fault depression has divided into two parts: the East fault depression and the West fault depression. The seismic data, seismic attribute analysis, and geological modeling techniques have applied to analyze the two fault depressions, the East fault depression has actively controlled by the strike-slip activity, and the structure is complex. The seismic data quality is poor; the structure of the West Fault Depression is the opposite and structural characteristics of asymmetrical difference strike-slip in the East and West fault depressions. Interpretation of seismic sections through a slippery background, the strike-slip attributes of the whole fault depression from south to north are segmented, and the strike-slip mechanism from east to west is different. Under the control of the multi-stage strike-slip mechanism, the Fangzheng fault depression is divided into six stages of strike-slip evolution, corresponding to the six different stages of the strike-slip control basin, the formation process of the asymmetric difference strike-slip fault basin is clarified, which provides a reference for the study of the strike-slip pull-apart basin with multi-stage structure.

Where eagles soar: Fine-resolution tracking reveals the spatiotemporal use of differential soaring modes in a large raptor.

Unlike smaller raptors, which can readily use flapping flight, large raptors are mainly restricted to soaring flight due to energetic constraints. Soaring comprises of two main strategies: thermal and orographic soaring. These soaring strategies are driven by discrete uplift sources determined by the underlying topography and meteorological conditions in an area. High‐resolution GPS tracking of raptor flight allows the identification of these flight strategies and interpretation of the spatiotemporal occurrence of thermal and orographic soaring. In this study, we develop methods to identify soaring flight behaviors from high‐resolution GPS tracking data of Verreaux’s eagle Aquila verreauxii and analyze these data to understand the conditions that promote the use of thermal and orographic soaring. We use these findings to predict the use of soaring flight both spatially (across the landscape) and temporally (throughout the year) in two topographically contrasting regions in South Africa. We found that topography is important in determining the occurrence of soaring flight and that thermal soaring occurs in relatively flat areas which are likely to have good thermal uplift availability. The predicted use of orographic soaring was predominately determined by terrain slope. Contrary to our expectations, the topography and meteorology of eagle territories in the Sandveld promoted the use of soaring flight to a greater extent than in territories in the more mountainous Cederberg region. Spatiotemporal mapping of predicted flight behaviors can broaden our understanding of how large raptors like the Verreaux’s eagle use their habitat and how that links to energetics (as the preferential use of areas that maximize net energy gain is expected), reproductive success, and ultimately population dynamics. Understanding the fine‐scale landscape use and environmental drivers of raptor flight can also help to predict and mitigate potential detrimental effects of anthropogenic developments, such as mortality via collision with wind turbines.

Follow the leader

Migratory Behavior What role do social dynamics play in guiding collective migrations? Identifying such dynamics requires following individual animals across long migratory distances. Flack et al. used GPS tags to follow individual juvenile white storks on their southern migration (see the Perspective by Nevitt). Birds generally fell into two categories: leaders and followers. Leaders sought out areas of thermal uplift, flapped less in transit, and flew farther. Followers followed leaders into thermals but had different trajectories, exhibited greater flapping effort, and flew shorter total distances. Science , this issue p. [911][1]; see also p. [852][2] [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aap7781 [2]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.aat7920

Predicting Migratory Corridors of White Storks, Ciconia ciconia, to Enhance Sustainable Wind Energy Planning: A Data-Driven Agent-Based Model

White storks (Ciconia ciconia) are birds that make annual long-distance migration flights from their breeding grounds in the Northern Hemisphere to the south of Africa. These trips take place in the winter season, when the temperatures in the North fall and food supply drops. White storks, because of their large size, depend on the wind, thermals, and orographic characteristics of the environment in order to minimize their energy expenditure during flight. In particular, the birds adopt a soaring behavior in landscapes where the thermal uplift and orographic updrafts are conducive. By attaining suitable soaring heights, the birds then use the wind characteristics to glide for hundreds of kilometers. It is therefore expected that white storks would prefer landscapes that are characterized by suitable wind and thermal characteristics, which promote the soaring and gliding behaviors. However, these same landscapes are also potential sites for large-scale wind energy generation. In this study, we used the observed data of the white stork movement trajectories to specify a data-driven agent-based model, which simulates flight behavior of the white storks in a dynamic environment. The data on the wind characteristics and thermal uplift are dynamically changed on a daily basis so as to mimic the scenarios that the observed birds experienced during flight. The flight corridors that emerge from the simulated flights are then combined with the predicted surface on the wind energy potential, in order to highlight the potential risk of collision between the migratory white storks and hypothetical wind farms in the locations that are suitable for wind energy developments. This work provides methods that can be adopted to assess the overlap between wind energy potential and migratory corridors of the migration of birds. This can contribute to achieving sustainable trade-offs between wind energy development and conservation of wildlife and, hence, handling the issues of human–wildlife conflicts.

Thermotectonic history of the Maastrichtian reservoir in Campos Basin

Abstract The present study of the Carapebus Formation on well samples refines our understanding of the thermotectonic history of the Maastrichtian oil reservoir in Campos Basin. Our investigations are based on the thermal analysis of 55 cuttings samples, of which 45 have also been analyzed with apatite fission track (AFT) dating, in addition to eleven cores analyzed for vitrinite reflectance (VR) and spore color. The apatites are partially annealed and the AFT central ages does not provide precise information on exhumation and thermotectonic events that occurred in the source terrain, whereas the youngest AFT ages provide a minimum age of 45.9 ± 5.5 Ma due to significant track annealing in the rocks. The VR (0.37–0.48 %Ro), spore color and Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) data correspond to the immature zone of hydrocarbons. The thermal history integrated with seismic profiles demonstrate that two phases of heating happened to reservoir, separated by a cooling event (65–37 Ma). The first heating phase started after deposition of the Carapebus Formation until 65 Ma and the second during late Eocene and reflect the subsidence at the basin. The cooling event shows a strong correlation with subaerial unconformity related in the basin and an important thermal uplift coeval with the last volcanic pulses of the Trindade mantle plume in the basin. During the uplift phase, the generation of hydrocarbon in reservoir was ceased and no more generation occurred until the Recent.

Seismically imaged shallow and deep crustal structure and potential field anomalies across the Eastern Dharwar Craton, south Indian shield: Possible geodynamical implications

The time-bound crustal evolution and subsequent deformation of the Cuddapah basin, Nellore Schist Belt and Eastern Ghats terrain of Eastern Dharwar Craton, which have undergone sustained geodynamic upheavals since almost 2.0 billion years, remain enigmatic. An attempt is made here to integrate newly available potential field data and other geophysical anomalies with deep seismic structure, to examine the generative mechanism of major crustal features, associated with this sector. Our study indicates that the initial extent of the Cuddapah basin sedimentation may have been much larger, extending by almost 50–60 km west of Tadipatri during Paleoproterozoic period, which subsequently shrank due to massive erosion following thermal uplift, caused by SW Cuddapah mantle plume. Below this region, crust is still quite warm with Moho temperatures exceeding 500 °C. Similarly, Nallamalai Fold Belt rocks, bounded by two major faults and extremely low gravity, may have occupied a large terrain in western Cuddapah basin also, before their abrasion. No geophysical signatures of thrusting are presently seen below this region, and thus it could not be an alien terrain either. In contrast, Nellore Schist Belt is associated with strikingly high positive gravity, possibly caused by a conspicuous horst structure and up dipping mafic crustal layers underneath, that resulted due to India-east Antarctica collision after the cessation of prolonged subduction (1.6–0.95 Ga). Further, the crustal seismic and gravity signatures would confirm presence of a totally distinct geological terrain east of the Cuddapah basin, but the trace of Eastern Ghats Belt is all together missing. Instead, all the geophysical signatures, point out to presence of a Proterozoic sedimentary terrain, east of Nellore Schist Belt. It is likely that the extent of Prorerozoic sedimentation was much larger than thought today. In addition, presence of a seismically detected Gondwana basin over Nellore Schist Belt, apart from some recently discovered similar subsurface Gondwana occurrences in intracratonic parts, would indicate that Dharwar Craton was rifting even during Gondwana period, thereby challenging the long held view of cratonic stability.

Uplift, rupture, and rollback of the Farallon slab reflected in volcanic perturbations along the Yellowstone adakite hot spot track

AbstractField, geochemical, and geochronological data show that the southern segment of the ancestral Cascades arc advanced into the Oregon back‐arc region from 30 to 20 Ma. We attribute this event to thermal uplift of the Farallon slab by the Yellowstone mantle plume, with heat diffusion, decompression, and the release of volatiles promoting high‐K calc‐alkaline volcanism throughout the back‐arc region. The greatest degree of heating is expressed at the surface by a broad ENE‐trending zone of adakites and related rocks generated by melting of oceanic crust from the Farallon slab. A hiatus in eruptive activity began at ca. 22–20 Ma but ended abruptly at 16.7 Ma with renewed volcanism from slab rupture occurring in two separate regions. The eastern rupture resulted in the extrusion of Steens Basalt during the ascent and melting of a dry mantle (plume) source contaminated with depleted mantle. The contemporaneous western rupture resulted in renewed subduction, melting of a wet mantle source, and the rejuvenation of high‐K calc‐alkaline volcanism near the Nevada‐California border at 16.7 Ma. Here the initiation of slab rollback is evident in the westward migration of arc volcanism at 7.8 km/Ma. Today, the uplifted slab is largely missing beneath the Oregon back‐arc region, replaced instead by a seismic hole that is bound on the south by the adakite hot spot track. We attribute slab destruction to thermal uplift and mechanical dislocation that culminated in rapid tearing of the slab from 17–15 Ma and possible foundering and sinking of slab segments from 16 to 10 Ma.

Match between soaring modes of black kites and the fine-scale distribution of updrafts

Understanding how soaring birds use updrafts at small spatial scales is important to identify ecological constraints of movement, and may help to prevent conflicts between wind-energy development and the conservation of wildlife. We combined high-frequency GPS animal tracking and fine-spatial-scale uplift modelling to establish a link between flight behaviour of soaring birds and the distribution of updrafts. We caught 21 black kites (Milvus migrans) and GPS-tracked them while flying over the Tarifa region, on the Spanish side of the Strait of Gibraltar. This region has a diverse topography and land cover, favouring a heterogeneous updraft spatial distribution. Bird tracks were segmented and classified into flight modes from motion parameters. Thermal and orographic uplift velocities were modelled from publically available remote-sensing and meteorological data. We found that birds perform circular soaring in areas of higher predicted thermal uplift and linear soaring in areas of higher predicted orographic uplift velocity. We show that updraft maps produced from publically available data can be used to predict where soaring birds will concentrate their flight paths and how they will behave in flight. We recommend the use of this methodological approach to improve environmental impact assessments of new wind-energy installations.

The energy landscape predicts flight height and wind turbine collision hazard in three species of large soaring raptor

Summary Collisions of large soaring raptors with wind turbines and other infrastructures represent a growing conservation concern. We describe a way to leverage knowledge about raptor soaring behaviour to forecast the probability that raptors fly in the rotor‐swept zone. Soaring raptors are theoretically expected to select energy sources (uplift) optimally, making their flight height dependent on uplift conditions. This approach can be used to forecast collision hazard when planning or operating wind farms. Empirical investigations of the factors influencing flight height have, however, so far been hindered by observation error. We propose a two‐pronged approach. First, we fitted state‐space models to z‐axis GPS tracking data to filter heavy‐tailed observation error and estimate the relationship between vertical movement parameters and weather variables describing the energy landscape (thermal and orographic uplift potential). Second, we fitted a mechanistic model of flight height above ground based on aerodynamics and resource selection theories. The approach was replicated for five GPS‐tracked Andean condors Vultur gryphus, eight griffon vultures Gyps fulvus, and six golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos. In all individuals, movement parameters correlated with thermal uplift potential in the expected direction. In all species, collision hazard was lowest for high thermal uplift potential values. Species specificities in the presence of a peak in collision hazard for medium values of thermal uplift potential could be explained by differences in wing loading and aspect ratio. Synthesis and applications. Our fitted models convert weather data (thermal uplift potential) into a prediction of collision hazard (probability to fly in the rotor‐swept zone), making it possible to prioritize different wind development projects with respect to the relative hazard they would pose to raptors. However, our model should be combined with post‐construction monitoring to document, and eventually account for turbine avoidance behaviours in collision rate predictions.

Vertical tectonic movements and sedimentary filling of basins during syn-rift and post-rift stages of lithosphere development

One-dimensional numerical modeling of isostatic response of lithosphere to thermal uplift of its bottom (active rifting) and interconnected formally independent thinning of the crust has been fulfilled. Evolution curves of vertical movements and interfaces displacements velocities have been examined. Depending on the introduced index of thinning of the crust velocity n =0,1¸3 spectrum of surface expression has been segregated: from the arc rift via annectent forms ( n =0,8¸1,5) to deep water depressions. In relation to a set of problems of paleo-tectonic reconstructions of sedimentary basins modeling of vertical movements accompanied by sedimentation was conducted. Situations have been examined when syn-rift sedimentation and dipping are much less than post-rift ones. Possibilities of establishment of conditions and evolution of continental and marine sedimentation within the limits of different regimes of riftogenesis have been investigated. In order to overcome limitations specific to methods of modern back-stripping an expanded variant of direct modeling has been tested based on the principle of «free sedimentation», taking into account facial vertical heterogeneity of the section and stratigraphic unconformities. In the model which explains formation of the Permian-Triassic sedimentary column of the Ebro depression (Iberia) paleo-geographic features of sedimentation are replicated: it was the continental one in the Permian and early Triassic with transition to marine in the end of Middle Triassic, uncertainty of stratigraphic unconformities of the Late Permian is also revealed. Accordingly, the complicated character of active riftogenesis consisting of two stages is predicted; for the second (Late Permian) variation of regime as three phases with different indices of thinning the crust is provided. Sedimentation and dipping of southeastern part of DDD which is characterized by abnormally high thicknesses of Carboniferous deposits are replicated at first approximation within the limits of a model including riftogenic dipping in the Late Devonian and the post-rift thermal one in the Carboniferous. The obtained changes of the sea depths are correlated with formational subdivisions of the Carboniferous cover and the intensity of coal accumulation.

Prolonged high relief in the northern Cordilleran orogenic front during middle and late Eocene extension based on stable isotope paleoaltimetry

The paleoelevation and size of the North America Cordilleran orogen during the late Cretaceous–Paleogene contractional and subsequent extensional tectonics remain enigmatic. We present new estimates of paleorelief of the northern Cordilleran orogenic front during the middle and late Eocene using oxygen isotope compositions of unaltered molluscan fossils and paleosol carbonates in the Kishenehn basin. Bounded by several mountains ranges to the east, the Kishenehn basin was a half graben developed during middle Eocene to early Miocene collapse of the Cordilleran orogen. These mollusk taxa include three sympatric groups with affinities to wet tropical, semi-arid subtropical, and temperate environments. Our reconstructed surface water δ18O values vary between −19.8‰ and −6.3‰ (VSMOW) during the middle and late Eocene. The large differences in paleoenvironments and surface water δ18O values suggest that the catchment of the Kishenehn basin was at variable elevation. The estimated paleorelief between the basin and the surrounding mountains, based on both Rayleigh condensation model and predictions of Eocene precipitation isotope values using an isotope-enabled global climate model, is ∼4 km, and the basin floor was <1.5 km high. This high topography and high relief paleogeography suggest that the Cordilleran orogenic front reached an elevation of at least 4 km, and the crust thickness may have reached more than 55 km before Eocene gravitational collapse. We attribute the maintenance of high Eocene topography to the combination of an inherited thick crust, thermal uplift caused by mantle upwelling, and isostatic uplift caused by removing lower lithosphere or oceanic slab.

Early Miocene continental-scale sediment supply to the Gulf of Mexico Basin based on detrital zircon analysis

The early Miocene was a period of major continental margin progradation in the Gulf of Mexico Basin that accompanied prominent tectonic and climatic changes in North America. However, sediment pathways from continental upland sources to deep basinal sinks remain poorly constrained. This study presents 2192 new detrital zircon U-Pb analyses from 19 Lower Miocene samples spanning the entire northern Gulf of Mexico margin to elucidate early Miocene sediment provenance and paleodrainage systems. The U-Pb age patterns indicate that the Great Plains, southern Rocky Mountains, and mid-Cenozoic volcanic field were the major source terranes for the western-central Gulf of Mexico coast, whereas the Appalachian foreland basin and Appalachian Mountains mainly contributed sediment to the eastern Gulf of Mexico coast. Local source terranes included the Llano uplift and Edwards Plateau in central Texas and the Ouachita Mountains and foreland basin in Oklahoma and Arkansas. A comparison to previous detrital zircon studies around the Gulf of Mexico indicates that sediment recycling was important during the early Miocene. Sediment associated with major paleorivers, including the Rio Bravo, Rio Grande, Houston-Brazos, Red, Mississippi, Tombigbee, and Apalachicola Rivers, can be differentiated using the detrital zircon U-Pb analyses. These data help to better define the early Miocene source-to-sink system in the northern Gulf of Mexico, by relating the basin fill to hinterland tectonic and geological evolution. In comparison to the Paleocene−Eocene Wilcox drainage system, the early Miocene drainage system of the northern Gulf of Mexico was smaller and received less input from western Mexico arc terranes and Archean basement in Wyoming. This drainage area reduction, related to regional thermal uplift and Basin and Range−Rio Grande rifting, likely explains the reduced sediment volume of the Lower Miocene strata in the Gulf of Mexico relative to the Paleocene−Eocene Wilcox Group.