Thermal Resistance Properties Research Articles

Thermal and Mechanical Performances Optimization of Plaster–Polystyrene Bio-Composites for Building Applications

Polystyrene is renowned for its excellent thermal insulation due to its closed-cell structure that traps air and reduces heat conduction. This study aims to develop sustainable, energy-efficient building materials by enhancing the thermal and mechanical properties of plaster–polystyrene bio-composites. By incorporating varying amounts of polystyrene (5% to 25%) into plaster, our research investigates changes in thermal conductivity, thermal resistance, and mechanical properties such as Young’s modulus and maximum stress. Meticulous preparation of composite samples ensures consistency, with thermal and mechanical properties assessed using a thermal chamber and four-point bending and tensile tests. The results show that increasing the polystyrene content significantly improved thermal insulation and stiffness, though maximum stress decreased, indicating a trade-off between insulation and mechanical strength.

Enhanced Interfacial Properties of Carbon Fiber/Polymerization of Monomers Reactants Method Polyimide Composite by Polyimide Sizing.

Carbon fiber (CF)-reinforced polyimide (PI) resin matrix composites have great application potential in areas such as rail transport, medical devices, and aerospace due to their excellent thermal stability, dielectric properties, solvent resistance, and mechanical properties. However, the epoxy sizing agent used for traditional carbon fiber cannot withstand the processing temperature of polyimide resin, of up to 350 °C, resulting in the formation of pores or defects at the interface between the fiber and the resin matrix, leading to the degradation of the overall composite properties. To overcome this problem, in this study, a low-molecular-weight thermosetting polyimide sizing agent was prepared and the processability of the sized carbon fiber was optimized by a thermoplastic polyimide. Compared with the unsized carbon fiber polyimide composites, the interfacial properties of the composites after the polyimide sizing treatment were significantly improved, with the interfacial shear strength (IFSS) increasing from 82.08 MPa to 136.27 MPa, the interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) increasing from 103.7 to 124.9 MPa, and the bending strength increasing from 2262.2 MPa to 2562.1 MPa. The sizing agent acts as a bridge between the carbon fiber and polyimide resin, with anchorage and bonding at the interface between the fiber and resin, which are beneficial for enhancing the interface performance of composites.

Cyclic thermal shock resistance and tribological properties of AlCrSiN, AlTiSiN and AlCrSiN/AlTiSiN multilayer hard coatings

Cyclic thermal shock resistance and tribological properties of AlCrSiN, AlTiSiN and AlCrSiN/AlTiSiN multilayer hard coatings

Improving thermal cracking and fatigue cracking performance of hard asphalt binders with bio-renewable additives

Traditional hard asphalt, due to its low cost and excellent mechanical properties, is considered a favorable material for resisting permanent deformation under high-temperature conditions. However, its limited stress relaxation ability at medium and low temperatures significantly impairs its capacity to meet the cracking resistance requirements. To address the limitation, this study synthesized three green and sustainable bio-renewable additives derived from high oleic rapeseed oil. These additives aimed to improve the performance of hard asphalt at medium- and low-temperature conditions, thereby broadening its potential for application in green and low-carbon construction practices. Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) tests were conducted to determine the critical low-temperature difference (ΔTc) to evaluate the thermal cracking resistance of bio-modified hard asphalt. The effects of the bio-additives on fatigue cracking resistance of hard asphalt were investigated using rheological indices, crossover frequencies, Glover-Rowe (G-R) parameters, and Linear Amplitude Sweep (LAS) tests. The results indicated that bio-additives effectively alleviated the stress in hard asphalt and reduced the asphalt’s susceptibility to thermal cracking by improving the flexibility and stress relaxation of the hard asphalt at low temperatures. Furthermore, the bio-additives substantially improved the ductility and toughness of hard asphalt at intermediate temperatures by lowering its strain sensitivity and increasing its fatigue cracking resistance. Additionally, the high oleic rapeseed oil-based derivatives notably reduced hard asphalt binder’s cracking induced by aging. Among the three bio-additives, acrylated epoxidized high oleic rapeseed oil (AEHORO) and epoxidized high oleic rapeseed oil (EHORO) were noticed to exhibit the most significant improvements in thermal cracking resistance and anti-aging properties, demonstrating superior load-bearing capacity at low temperatures. Overall, the developed bio-additives significantly improved both the thermal cracking and fatigue damage resistance of traditional hard asphalt, thus expanding its applications in pavements for various regions.

Thermal inactivation of non-proteolytic Clostridium botulinum spores in chilled plant-based foods

To support innovation in the dynamic plant-based foods sector, a study was conducted to set fit for purpose and risk-based alternative thermal processing conditions to the usually used safe harbour heat treatment of 90 °C - 10 min that ensures food safety of extended shelf life refrigerated products. To do so, inactivation data were collected to determine the thermal resistance properties (D- and z-values) of non-proteolytic Clostridium botulinum Type E spores (reference strain NCTC 8266) then build and validate specific inactivation models for two plant-based products: Konjac-based Seafood Analogue (Product 1) and Canola-based Eggs Analogue (Product 2) with desired sensorial properties not compatible with the application of the classical heat treatment of 90 °C - 10 min.D-values were determined at five temperatures ranging from 78 °C to 86 °C for each matrix to build the model and additional data were collected at 75 °C and 80 °C to validate the model. Dref80°C-values were estimated at 1.90 and 0.80 min and z-values at 6.12 °C and 6.84 °C respectively for products 1 and 2. Simulations were performed to estimate the time required to reach the required Performance Objective (PO) of 6 log reductions to ensure food safety at different temperatures for each product. The targeted PO could be reached in both products with lower temperatures and shorter times compared to the safe harbor. Results showed that the inactivation of non-proteolytic C. botulinum Type E spores was faster in product 2 compared to product 1. The developed and validated models, together with the proposed methodology can be used to support food industries in collecting specific data to justify setting fit for purpose heat treatments ensuring food safety with regards to the control of non-proteolytic C. botulinum type E spores without compromising on the desired sensorial properties such as those required for some plant-based products.

Design and characterization of multicolor water-repellent coatings: Impact of alkyl chain length on surface properties

Fabrication of functional colored water-repellent surfaces is very important for many industrial applications. Here, various colorful surface coating materials having water repellent property, chemical, thermal and UV light resistance and self-cleaning property were prepared using activated halloysite nanotube loaded with dye (A-Hal/dye), different alkoxysilanes (methyltriethoxysilane (MTES), octyltriethoxysilane (OTES) and hexadecyltrimethoxysilane (HDTMS)), and tetraethoxysilane and their coatings were performed on various substrates to determine the effect of alkyl chain length of alkoxysilane compound used in the coating formulation on the surface properties of colorful surfaces. Characterization studies of the synthesized surfaces or coated materials were performed using electron microscopy (TEM and SEM), SEM-mapping, FTIR, XRD, XPS and thermal gravimetic analysis techniques. Water contact angle (WCA) of glass surfaces coated with A-Hal/MB/MTES, A-Hal/MB/OTES and A-Hal/MB/HDTMS materials was found to be 148.0, 156.2 and 159.3°, respectively. The use of an alkoxysilane compound with long functional alkyl chain group in the coating formulation improved the water-repellent property of surface, while it slightly weakened the mechanical stability of the colorful surface. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) coating, which were applied on colorful surfaces, improved the mechanical, thermal, chemical and environmental stability of coating, but decreased the water-repellent property of coated colorful surfaces. Fabricated coating materials having different colors were successfully used to coat various substrates such as glass, filter paper, wood, and cotton fabric. The results of this study show that A-Hal/dye/HDTMS coating materials prepared here are of a great potential in the fabrication of functional surface coatings.

Analytical Model for Heat Transfer Around Energy Piles in Layered Soil With Interfacial Thermal Resistance by Integral Transform Method

ABSTRACTEnergy piles are commonly deployed in vertically layered geological conditions due to the geological structure and pile foundation backfill. The imperfect contact between adjacent soil layers results in resistance to heat transfer at the interface, known as the interfacial thermal resistance effect. In this paper, the energy pile was simplified as a finite‐length solid cylindrical heat source, and an analytical model was established for layered heat transfer of energy piles considering the interfacial thermal resistance effect. The Laplace‐domain solutions to the temperatures in the layered ground were derived by using the finite Hankel and Laplace transforms. The Crump method was subsequently employed to numerically invert Laplace‐domain solutions to the time‐domain solutions. The proposed model was validated by comparing with an analytical solution of a homogeneous model and COMSOL numerical solution. These solutions were used to analyze the temperature response around energy piles considering interfacial thermal resistance. Finally, a parametric study was performed to explore the effects of interfacial thermal resistance and other thermal properties of the soil layer on the layered heat transfer of energy piles.

Optimizing polylactic acid composites: Role of sodium lignosulfonate-modified carbon nanotubes in mechanical and interfacial performance

In this study, researchers synthesized sodium lignosulfonate (LS) modified multi-walled carbon nanotubes (L-MWCNTs) using a deep eutectic solvent (DES) method and incorporated them into polylactic acid (PLA) composite films using a solvent evaporation method. The nanofiller content ranged between 0.5 % and 1.5 % by mass. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed the uniform dispersion of LS on the surface of MWCNTs, while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that L-MWCNTs were homogeneously distributed within PLA matrix without notable aggregation. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) demonstrated enhanced thermal stability, with an 8.4 % increase in residue at 800 °C. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed the successful integration of L-MWCNTs into the composite films, while X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed a significant increase in crystallinity (Xc) from 47.4 % to 68.9 %. With increasing L-MWCNT content, ultraviolet-visible (UV–vis) transmittance decreased from 75.9 % to 28.9 %, and oxygen (O2) permeability was reduced by 22.4 %. At an L-MWCNT content of 1.5 %, the composite films exhibited an increase of 49.7 % and 194.5 % in tensile strength and elongation at break compared to pure PLA. These results unveil that PLA/L-MWCNT composite films possess excellent mechanical strength, thermal resistance, and barrier properties, enabling their suitability for advanced applications in packaging, medical, and electronic industries.

Enhanced mechanical and thermal properties of epoxy vinyl ester nanocomposites through hybridization with functionalized graphene oxide and nanoglass flakes

This study presents the preparation of epoxy vinyl ester nanocomposites based on hybrid nanofillers, namely functionalized graphene oxide and nanoglass flakes, for outstanding mechanical, thermal, and water resistance properties. Significantly, these hybrid nanocomposites exhibited considerable improvement in tensile strength and modulus, about 39 % and 52 % greater than neat resin, respectively. DSC analysis has shown that Tg increased from 108 °C for the neat resin to 130.9 °C for the FGO/FNGF hybrid nanocomposite, which confirmed an improvement in thermal stability. Water absorption tests have shown a remarkable reduction of moisture intake. Saturation moisture content decreased from 1.35 % for the neat resin to 0.53 % for the hybrid nanocomposite due to the tortuous pathways created by the hybrid fillers. The rheological studies confirmed that better filler dispersion and interfacial bonding are achieved, which is a 34 % increase in the storage modulus with respect to neat resin. SEM studies showed homogeneous distribution of fillers with good filler-matrix adhesion in the case of the hybrid system. The studies thus confirm FGO and FNGF synergies in reinforcement of epoxy vinyl ester nanocomposites for high-performance applications in hostile environments.

Immobilization of Phospholipase D on Magnetic Graphene Oxide for Efficient Phosphatidylserine Production

Phosphatidylserine (PS) has significant applications in various sectors, such as the medical and food industries. However, its production relies heavily on phospholipase D (PLD), a crucial tool that is hindered by issues like poor stability and irrecoverability. Immobilization presents itself as an effective solution to overcome these limitations. In this study, magnetic graphene oxide (MGO) modified with an amino (NH2) group was synthesized and utilized for PLD immobilization. The activity of the immobilized PLD (MGO-PLD) reached 3062 U/gMGO, with a specific activity of 33.9 U/mgPLD, virtually identical to that of the free PLD. MGO-PLD was utilized to synthesize PS efficiently in a biphasic system. Under optimal conditions, the PS yield reached 18.66 g/L, with a conversion rate of 92.8% and a productivity of 3.11 g/L/h. Notably, MGO-PLD retained an impressive PS conversion rate of 77.4% even after seven repetitive usages. Moreover, MGO-PLD displayed enhanced thermal and pH resistance properties compared to free PLD, alongside augmented storage stability. After an 8-week preservation at 4 °C, its residual activity was maintained at 76.3%. This study provides a sustainable and highly efficient pathway for the biocatalytic synthesis of PS.

Improving thermal insulation and thermal resistance properties of laterite‐based geopolymer foams by direct foaming

AbstractThis work aims to synthesize new foaming laterite geopolymer foam using laterite, sodium silicate solution, sand, and aluminium powder. The porosity rapidly increased with the addition of the foaming agent. The foam matrix had thermal conductivity values of 0.10 W/m K with 0.7% of Al powder and 0.64 W/m K with 0% of Al powder. For fire resistance, samples exposed to high temperatures (200°C and 500°C) showed increased flexural strength, linear shrinkage at 500°C, and a decrease at 900°C due to structural weakening under high thermal pressure and the appearance of new phases such as nepheline and akermanite in X‐ray diffraction analysis. The results also showed that a 30% increase in fine aggregate content increased the strength of the foam matrix, with flexural strength ranging from 5 to 9.1 MPa after 28 days of ambient curing. These laterite geopolymer foams have shown promising thermal insulation and mechanical qualities that are appropriate for building applications.

Sustained-release composite films incorporated with cinnamon essential oil: Characterization, release kinetics and application for cherry tomato preservation

Food spoilage waste accelerated the development of bio-based active food packaging. Sustained-release composite films based on oxidized corn starch/pullulan were prepared by incorporating cinnamon essential oil (CEO) nanoemulsion. The SEM, ATR-FTIR and XRD results showed that CEO was successfully encapsulated in film matrixes. The composite films exhibited the increase of thermal stability, UV-shielding, flexibility and water vapor resistance properties. The films containing CEO nanoemulsion (≥10%) showed excellent antimicrobial activities against S. aureus, E. coli and B. cinerea (the maximum inhibition zones achieving 27.23 ± 2.31 mm). The release kinetics results showed sustained release of CEO from the films with high content of CEO nanoemulsion, and the dominant release mechanism was Fickian diffusion. The composite films effectively maintained cell structure, weight, firmness and total soluble solids content of fruits during storage. Therefore, the sustained-release composite films could be a prospective packaging material for fruits preservation.

Flexible and antistatic carbon fiber/silicone rubber composite coating with improved thermal stability, mechanical and wave-transmission properties

The properties of the interface have a significant impact on the application of silicone rubber (SR) composite coating fillers with carbon fiber (CF). The one-step growth of silica nanoparticles on the fiber surface was investigated in terms of the mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties of the CF/SR composite coatings. The results showed that the tensile strength and elongation of the composite with modified fibers were 7.13 ± 0.44 MPa and 690.40 ± 37.04 %, which were 20.44 % and 23.22 % higher than those with unmodified CFs, respectively. The improvement in interfacial adhesion by silica modification effectively disperses stress and avoids stress concentration. Additionally, the introduction of the low-dielectric material SiO2 and the reduction of the interfacial polarization enhanced the wave-transmission properties and weakened the electromagnetic wave-shielding properties of the composites. Meanwhile, the silica modification maintained the antistatic properties of the coatings at room and high temperatures, as well as before and after bending. The weight loss of the composites with modified fibers was lower than that of the composites with unmodified fibers, while the thermal conductivity was higher because of the stable structure of the Si-O-Si bonds and interfacial adhesion. This work provides a simple way to enhance the thermal resistance, thermal conductivity, mechanical and wave-transmission properties, and preserve the antistatic properties as well as the flexibility of CF/SR composite coatings.

Numerical characterizations of the thermomechanical response of power modules with ceramic substrates and lead-free bonds

PurposeThe present paper aims to study the influence of the substrate system on the thermomechanical response of various lead-free die attach materials used in power electronics using nonlinear finite element simulations.Design/methodology/approachParticularly, three ceramic substrate systems, including direct copper bonded (DCB) and aluminum nitride (AlN) – as well as silicon nitride (Si3N4) –based insulated metal substrate (IMS) configurations are examined in this study. Additionally, three die attach systems, namely, silver-tin transient liquid phase (TLP), sintered silver (Ag) and sintered copper (Cu) are included in the analysis. ANSYS software is employed to build the finite element models of the power modules and to conduct the nonlinear thermomechanical investigations.FindingsThe simulation results revealed that the IMS, Si3N4 and DCB-based power modules end up with significantly lower interconnect inelastic strains and inelastic strain energies suggesting better fatigue life performance. Additionally, the bonding layer stresses and expected failure mechanism are not influenced by the substrate configuration rather than the bond material. For instance, the silver-tin TLP joints develop high stresses and hence brittle failures are expected. Nonetheless, the sintered Ag and sintered Cu have significantly lower stresses which could lead to fatigue-induced failures.Originality/valuePower electronics use various ceramic-based substrate systems because of their improved thermal conductivity, electrical insulation and heat resistance properties. The proper selection of the substrate structure could highly enhance the thermal fatigue of the power modules. Markedly, the findings of this research are useful for designing highly reliable and effective power modules continuously subjected to thermomechanical loadings.

Interpretable and Physicochemical-Intuitive Deep Learning Approach for the Design of Thermal Resistance of Energetic Compounds.

Thermal resistance of energetic materials is critical due to its impact on safety and sustainability. However, developing predictive models remains challenging because of data scarcity and limited insights into quantitative structure-property relationships. In this work, a deep learning framework, named EM-thermo, was proposed to address these challenges. A data set comprising 5029 CHNO compounds, including 976 energetic compounds, was constructed to facilitate this study. EM-thermo employs molecular graphs and direct message-passing neural networks to capture structural features and predict thermal resistance. Using transfer learning, the model achieves an accuracy of approximately 97% for predicting the thermal-resistance property (decomposition temperatures above 573.15 K) in energetic compounds. The involvement of molecular descriptors improved model prediction. These findings suggest that EM-thermo is effective for correlating thermal resistance from the atom and covalent bond level, offering a promising tool for advancing molecular design and discovery in the field of energetic compounds.

The effect of pre-dehydrated magnesium-silicate-hydrate on the properties of the castables bonded with hydrable magnesium carboxylate

This study investigates the effect of pre-dehydrated magnesium-silicate-hydrate (PMSH) on the properties of HMC-bonded castables (HMCC), aiming to enhance the medium-temperature mechanical performance of HMCC through the structural memory characteristics of PMSH. The results indicate that adding M-S-H-300 (PMSH treated at 300 °C) improves the mid-temperature mechanical properties of HMCC. Specifically, the cold modulus of rupture (CMOR) for the samples 300MSH increases by 605.9 % at 500 °C and 582.6 % at 800 °C compared to control samples due to the excellent thermal stability of M-S-H-300 and a 38.3 % improvement in castable sintering performance. Additionally, M-S-H-300 improves the thermal shock resistance and setting properties of HMCC, extending the castable's setting time by 19 %. The conductivity test results indicate that the addition of M-S-H-300 inhibits the ionization of HMC, thereby delaying its hydration process. Castables with M-S-H-300 demonstrate higher CMOR and residual strength ratio before and after thermal shock. Further testing reveals that adding M-S-H-300 increased the castable's elastic modulus by 482.6 % and fracture toughness by 35.6 % after sintering at 1500 °C, enhancing resistance to microcrack propagation during thermal shock. Furthermore, adding M-S-H-300 reduces the aspect ratio of HMC hydration products, optimizing microstructure and reducing porosity. However, this modification slightly decreases the mechanical properties of the green body.

Improving thermal shock and oxidation resistance of Cr3C2/WC-NiCr cermet coating by embedding large NiCrAlY superalloy particles

Cr3C2/WC-based cermet coating is widely used on the surface of mechanical equipment to strengthen its wear and corrosion resistance. Improving the high-temperature performance of cermet coating is the key to its industrial application. In this study, a novel type of bimodal microstructure cermet coating with the design of functional sites was fabricated via high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) spray technology. The toughness NiCrAlY superalloy particles are introduced into the traditional Cr3C2/WC-NiCr cermet structure to construct the thermal stress release site, which significantly improved the thermal shock resistance and thermal oxidation properties of the coating. The addition of NiCrAlY superalloy particle reduces the porosity of Cr3C2/WC-NiCr coating to 0.29 % and creates high-quality interface bonding and surface passivation layer. The newly structured cermet coating exhibits outstanding high-temperature performance. In a 1000 °C oxidation environment, the new coating remained intact after 120 h of exposure, while the traditional Cr3C2/WC-NiCr cermet coating exfoliated completely after 48 h of exposure. Further, in the thermal shock condition at 1000 °C, the lifetime of the new coating is 50 times greater than that of the traditional cermet coating, displaying excellent ability to relieve thermal stress. Additionally, the new coating shows good wear resistance and stability during high-temperature thermal exposure. After thermal exposure for 24 h and 72 h, the wear rates of the coating are 5.28 and 5.83 × 10−5 mm3 N−1 m−1, respectively, which is slightly lower than that of the as-sprayed coating. This study provides guidance for the improvement of high temperature resistance of thermally sprayed Cr3C2/WC-based cermet coatings.

Effect of Zr/Dy on thermal corrosion resistant properties of NiCrAlY coatings

Dy or Zr doped NiCrAlY coatings were fabricated via arc ion plating technology on nickel-based single crystal superalloy. Thermal corrosion tests of NiCrAlY, NiCrAlYZr, and NiCrAlYDy coatings with 75 wt% Na2SO4 + 25 wt% NaCl mixed salt were conducted at 900 °C. The weight gain of the NiCrAlY, NiCrAlYZr, and NiCrAlYDy coating samples after 100 h of thermal corrosion was as follows: −11.32, 1.06 and −6.56 mg∙cm−2. The results indicated that the NiCrAlYZr coating exhibits superior thermal corrosion resistance compared to both NiCrAlY and Dy-doped NiCrAlY coatings due to the beneficial effects of Zr interacting with S and Cl, making it more effectively protect the hot components of aircraft engine from thermal corrosion.

A sustainable recycling process and its life cycle assessment for valorising post-consumer textile materials for thermal insulation applications.

The textile industry along with construction, electronics and plastic generate huge amounts of waste posing challenges to the adoption of the circular economy. This research presents a sustainable and low-cost recycling technology for conversion of post-consumer textile (denim) wastes to useful insulation materials. To accomplish the objective, nonwoven materials were produced using varying proportions of post-consumer recycled denim (r-denim) fibre and hollow polyester (PET) fibre using different punch densities in the needle punching process. Kowalski, Cornell and Vining mixture design, a special type of design of experiments, was adopted to develop the samples. Developed nonwoven materials were characterised for thermal resistance and tensile properties. The results show that nonwoven materials containing the minimum proportion (20%) of r-denim fibres exhibited the highest thermal resistance (0.131 W-1m2K). However, by adjusting the process parameter of the nonwovens, that is, the punch density, the same thermal resistance (0.131 W-1m2K) is also achieved even with 39% r-denim fibres. Additionally, the nonwovens produced from this blend proportion (r-denim:PET = 39:61) demonstrate a reasonable strength of 2.43 cN/tex. Environmental benefits of the developed r-denim/PET nonwovens have been evaluated by the life cycle assessment approach. Results show that the use of ~40% r-denim fibre has reduced the environmental burden significantly. Therefore, the nonwoven materials produced from post-consumer textile wastes hold tremendous potential as an alternative to synthetic fibres in thermal insulation applications. This recycling approach has immense potential to contribute to the efficient utilisation of post-consumer textile waste materials paving the way for environmental sustainability.

DETERMINATION THERMAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF NANO CARBON, GRAPHITE AND GRAPHENE REINFORCED RECYCLING POLYPROPYLENE COMPOSITE SAMPLES

Polymer-based plastic materials occupy a major place in daily life. However, due to the nature of polymer materials, low thermal resistance and mechanical properties of these products, the need for new and sustainable materials in the industry has increased. With the rapid technological developments in advanced manufacturing industries such as aviation, marine, motor sports and defence industry, lightweight and high-strength composite products have become even more important. In this context, in this study, 1% carbon, graphene and graphite particle reinforced Polypropylene (PP) composite material mixed in a twin-screw extruder and MA/G series injection moulding machine standard tensile test sample produced. Melt Flow Index (MFI), Heat Deformation Test (HDT), tensile test, Shore-D hardness measurement and density tests performed on these test samples. According to the results obtained from these tests, the mechanical and thermal properties of the test samples produced from different composite materials were determined. The best mechanical and thermal properties occurred in the graphene particle. It formed in graphite and carbon, respectively.