Thermal Control Design Research Articles

The research of thermal environment test methodology for the Mars probe product

Abstract In order to ensure the success of the Mars exploration mission, it is necessary to accurately simulate the unique environment on the surface of Mars in a ground test and verify the effectiveness of the thermal control measures of the Mars rover. This paper proposes a thermal balance test method that can simultaneously simulate environmental factors such as Martian surface gas atmosphere, wind speed, pressure, solar radiation, and atmospheric temperature. This proposed test method meets the thermal design verification requirements of component-level products. Compared with similar large-scale facilities, the test cost is low, and the implementation efficiency is high. Furthermore, the influence of the Martian wind field on the surface temperature distribution of the product under both the Martian day and night environment was investigated using the proposed test method. The research results show that although the atmospheric pressure on the surface of Mars is much lower than the surface of the Earth, the Martian wind will still form forced convection heat transfer on the surface of the probe and its auxiliary products, which will affect the heat distribution of the products. In the thermal control design of the products, it is necessary to consider the impact of all the above environmental factors and carry out corresponding comprehensive environmental test verification.

Design and application of graphite film with high thermal conductivity in SAR antenna

Abstract The rapid development of SAR antenna in the remote sensing field has put forward the test of antenna thermal design. In this paper, according to the load of a certain type of extravehicular SAR antenna, a reasonable thermal design is carried out for its high heat consumption and external heat flux. A high thermal conductivity graphite film is used for heat expansion. The test shows that the mounting plate heat expansion capacity difference is 28°C with and without graphene film, with 40W heat consumption applied in 180mm transmission distance. The simulation analysis and thermal balance test are carried out. The results show that the high thermal conductivity graphite film can rapidly extend the heat of the single unit of the SAR antenna to the whole antenna, and make the antenna meet the temperature requirement in orbit, which proves the rationality of thermal design. This paper is useful for the thermal control design of a satellite-borne SAR antenna.

Introduction to thermal control design process for CubeSats in Mexico

Abstract CubeSats are a popular type of spacecraft categorized as nanosatellites. In 1999, Professors first developed these devices at California Polytechnic State University and Stanford University to offer an affordable and accessible experience to students. Data information updated up to May 31st, 2023, shows that 2286 Nanosats have been launched, where 2105 were CubeSats. Moreover, 82 countries have nanosats, whereas Latin America has 44 CubeSat. The fact that Mexico just 5 launched 5 CubeSats is a consequence of the complicated space sector ecosystem in the nation that combines lack of funding and, more importantly, the absence of ¨know-how¨ design space missions from scratch. This manuscript reviews the system engineering methodology used to develop space missions, according to NASA discussing a particular methodology for CubeSat Missions. Next, a CubeSat data trend is shown, followed by a general description of its subsystems. Afterward, the design process activities of the Thermal Control Subsystem (TCS) based on the “NASA Systems Engineering Processes and Requirements” and “Thermal analysis handbook is described. The TCS is often underestimated and confused to implement. For this reason, a design methodology for the TCS accepted to Mexico context is proposed. Finally, the conclusions are presented.

Passive thermal control design and flight operation results of nano moon lander OMOTENASHI

OMOTENASHI is a 6U CubeSat launched by the first NASA SLS rocket. Its mission was to demonstrate that a CubeSat can make a semi-hard landing on the Moon. Tight resource constraints make it difficult to mount a heater and a radiator in a CubeSat, so passive thermal control is a prominent design feature of OMOTENASHI that resolves the technical difficulty. In November 2019, a thermal vacuum test was conducted. This paper discusses the thermal design and the test results. OMOTENASHI was launched by SLS rocket on November 16, 2022. After the SLS rocket separation, OMOTENASHI's attitude control malfunctioned so it could not generate power from its solar cells. Eventually, communications were lost and have not been restored. Brief telemetry data confirmed that the temperature monitor functioned correctly for 30 min. This paper reports the flight results of the thermal status during the first ground station pass. Also, a comparison between the analysis model and telemetry data is shown. Finally, based on its estimated trajectory, the future thermal profile of the spacecraft and the result of the search operation are discussed.

Thermal design and experimental verification of the space ultraviolet wide field of view multi-channel scanning imager

In order to ensure the optimal imaging quality of the space ultraviolet wide field of view multi-channel scanning imager, it is imperative to conduct a comprehensive investigation into the thermal control system. First, we shall present the structure and performance index of the imager. The determination of the heat dissipation surface's position follows an analysis of the imager's exterior heat discharge. Subsequently, the thermal control design for every individual component of the imager is determined, considering the challenges associated with thermal management. The accuracy of the initial thermal design is verified by doing thermal simulation studies. Subsequently, the thermal equilibrium test was performed. The test results reveal that the temperature of the lens assembly varied between 20.0 °C and 25.6 °C, the horizontal bracket ranged from 19.7 °C to 21.7 °C, the vertical bracket exhibited temperatures between 11.2 °C and 15.4 °C, the U-frame experienced temperatures ranging from 15.1 °C to 17.4 °C, the motor showed temperatures between 6.6 °C and 26.3 °C, the detector recorded temperatures between 21.4 °C and 25.9 °C, and the high voltage module exhibited temperatures ranging from 8.9 °C to 19.9 °C. The temperature of each component is within the designated thermal control range. Extensive evidence has been presented to demonstrate the effectiveness and precision of thermal design.

Thermal Design of the High-Resolution Volatiles and Minerals Moon Mapper (HVM3) Instrument on the Lunar Trailblazer Mission (LTB)

The Lunar Trailblazer (LTB) Mission consists of a spacecraft that hosts two science instruments, the High-resolution Volatiles and Minerals Moon Mapper (HVM3) and the Lunar Thermal Mapper. Flight system delivery is scheduled for the Fall of 2022. The purpose of the mission is to understand the form, abundance and distribution of water on the Moon as well as the lunar water cycle. HVM3 is a pushbroom shortwave infrared (SWIR) Offner imaging spectrometer that is optimized for the detection of volatiles to map OH, bound H2O and water ice. It has a spatial resolution of 70 m/pixel over a 20 km swath width and a spectral resolution of 10 nm over a spectral range of 0.6 µm to 3.6 µm. The spacecraft will deploy from an ESPA Grande and enter a 100±30 km lunar polar orbit where it may operate over all beta angles. The HVM3 thermal control architecture consists of active and passive elements. It leverages the passive cryogenic cooler design developed for the Moon Minerology Mapper (M3) that underwent a similar orbit. The first stage of the passive cooler is used to reject the heat of a Lockheed Martin Micro1-2 cryocooler that is used to actively cool the focal plane array (FPA). The second stage of the passive cooler is used to passively cool the optics. An overview of the overall thermal control design approach is presented.

Numerical thermal control design for applicability to a large-scale high-capacity lithium-ion energy storage system subjected to forced cooling

Overheating and non-uniform temperature distributions within the energy storage system (ESS) often reduce the electric capacity and cycle lifespan of lithium-ion batteries. In this numerical work, the thermal design inside the battery cabinet is explored. The battery cabinet has seven-level configurations with the suction fans located on the top of the ESS to efficiently realize heat dissipation. First, the numerical modeling is validated by the available experimental data, and the discrepancy in the maximum temperature increase between the experimental and computational results is found to be 3.2% or 0.64 K. Then, the optimum airflow rates of the fans are determined, where the single-cell model is also compared with the model of seven-level modules (i.e., 1/3ESS cabinet). Finally, the airflow channel widths, air gaps between the battery modules, as well as the air gaps between the 7th level module and the fans are examined. It is indicated for the precise model of 1/3ESS cabinet that: i) The maximum temperature rise of 4.63 K, and the maximum temperature variation of 2.14 K from cell to cell & the temperature uniformity of 2.82 K from module to module are all controlled with the requirements of operating temperature < 313.15 K, and temperature differences < 5.0 K, respectively; ii) The airflow channel width of 3.0 mm and the air gap of 10 mm between two adjacent modules & air gap of 20 mm between 7th level module and six parallel-fans are designed, and the ESS cabinet can increase the batteries of one level caused by the saved inside space.

Optimization of Thermal Control Design for Aerial Reflective Opto-Mechanical Structure.

To improve the adaptability of aerial reflective opto-mechanical structures (mainly including the primary mirror and secondary mirror) to low-temperature environments, typically below -40 °C, an optimized thermal control design, which includes passive insulation and temperature-negative feedback-variable power zone active heating, is proposed. Firstly, the relationship between conventional heating methods and the axial/radial temperature differences of mirrors with different shapes is analyzed. Based on the heat transfer analyses, it is pointed out that optimized thermal control design is necessary to ensure the temperature uniformity of the fused silica mirror, taking into account the temperature level when the aerial electro-optics system is working in low-temperature environments. By adjusting the input voltage based on the measured temperature, the heating power of the subregion is changed accordingly, so as to locally increase or decrease the temperature of the mirrors. The thermal control scheme ensures that the average temperature of the mirror fluctuates slowly and slightly around 20 °C. At the same time, the temperature differences within a mirror and between the primary mirror and the secondary mirror can be controlled within 5 °C. Thereby, the resolution of EO decreases by no more than 11.4%.

Thermal design and flight validation of the chang’e-4 relay satellite

The Chang’e-4 relay satellite operates in the HALO orbit at the Earth-Moon Lagrange L2 point, which can provide relay communication to the lander and the rover operating on the lunar far side to maintain their contacts with the earth and is a key link of the Chang’e-4 exploration mission. Unlike most LEO (Low Earth Orbit) satellites, the outer space environment of the Chang’e-4 relay satellite is much harsher. The Chang’e-4 relay satellite must suffer from a torrid environment that faces direct sunlight or direct exposure to 4K deep cold space in a shadow zone which may last longer than 6 hours. The Chang’e-4 relay satellite must ensure the operation and temperature control of instruments and equipment during the shadow zone with a limited battery level. This proposes high demands on the TCD (Thermal Control Design). The entire satellite resources were reasonably used for integrated TCD with limited battery level and limited weight. According to the working mode of the Chang’e-4 relay satellite and its torrid environment, its TCD was completed successfully, and on-orbit test data conformed to the expected results and theoretical calculation. TCD of the Chang’e-4 relay satellite has worked normally since the day that the Chang’e-4 relay satellite was launched into space.

Thermal field simulation and material parameter optimization for spaceborne annular truss antennas

The operational efficacy of large spaceborne annular truss antennas in orbit is significantly influenced by solar irradiation and alternating Earth shadow. This antenna system periodically encounters diverse extreme environments that impact the precision of the antenna surface performance. Consequently, this study presents an optimized thermal control design and conducts temperature field simulation calculations for such antennas. Initial efforts are directed toward analyzing the variables influencing the antenna structure’s temperature, with specific attention paid to the distinctive compositional characteristics of high-precision antennas. As a subsequent step, orthogonal tests are implemented, facilitating the development of an antenna thermal analysis model. This model assists in the identification of principal variables influencing the antenna’s temperature field. Finally, the antenna’s optimal thermal design is drawn upon the biogeography-based optimization (BBO) algorithm, enabling the derivation of ideal material parameters for the thermal design of the antenna. This methodology offers theoretical guidance for future thermal control design of large spaceborne annular truss antennas.

КОНЦЕПТУАЛЬНЫЙ ПРОЕКТ СИСТЕМЫ ТОПЛИВНЫХ ЭЛЕМЕНТОВ НА ОСНОВЕ МАТЕРИАЛОВ С ИЗМЕНЯЕМЫМ ФАЗОВЫМ СОСТАВОМ

A conceptual design of a fuel cell system model based on materials with variable phase composition, suitable for use in road transport, is considered. The article contains the results of re-search based on a fuel cell system with a nominal power of 50 kW operating at 80 °C. Variants with different materials suitable for a fuel cell system with variable phase composition are considered. The article provides a schematic view of the configuration of the thermal control design based on materials with a variable phase state for a fuel cell battery. The data on the minimum temperature of fuel cells and the minimum temperature of heat storage are highlighted.

Design and research of integrated components for microsatellite thermal control system

With the increasing development of aerospace technology, micro satellites have attracted high attention in the aerospace field due to their advantages such as short development cycle, low system investment, and flexible launch methods. Their high level of internal equipment integration, high heat flux density, complex and uncertain working modes pose new challenges to thermal control design. At present, the thermal control design of micro satellites still mainly adopts passive methods, while active thermal control design has been widely used in the fluid circuit of large spacecraft, mostly in the “task oriented design mode”. Its high design cost, long cycle, poor adaptability and other characteristics cannot be applied to low cost, short cycle, and flexible launch methods of micro satellites. In response to the new problems brought by the high power density and low thermal inertia of microsatellites in thermal control design, this paper proposes an active thermal control fluid loop system suitable for microsatellites. In addition to the cold plate and radiator at the equipment end, other equipment forms an integrated component in the form of a shared substrate. The integrated component has the characteristics of miniaturization, lightweight, and rapid replacement of board and card. Through simulation and technical analysis of key components, We believe that this scheme is reasonable and feasible, providing a new design scheme for the thermal control design of subsequent micro satellites.

Distributed MPC-ILC Thermal Control Design for Large-Scale Multi-Zone Building HVAC System

With building heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems accounting for 50% the energy consumption in the building sector in the United States, there is a need to develop and implement optimal control strategies for building HVAC systems that reduce energy consumption while achieving thermal comfort for users. In the author's previous work, an integrated model predictive control (MPC) and iterative learning control (ILC) design approach was presented that took advantage of both controllers. It did not rely on model accuracy compared to conventional MPC and reduced the learning curve compared to conventional ILC. Albeit the previous numerical results showed fast convergence in most of the VAV subsystems, the gap between room air temperature and its set point remains noticeable in several zones. This paper further proposes an approach to extend the centralized MPC-ILC controller to take into account the distributed factor and the spatial distribution of the thermal zones of the VAV system. The improved control strategy allows all VAVs to interact with each other and contribute collectively to the overall convergence of the whole system. The proposed controller is implemented on a thirty-two zone VAV reheat system and compared with different controllers, including our previous MPC-ILC design. The outcomes show that the proposed controller results in faster and closer convergence among all zones even when the number of subsystems is large.

Thermal design and analysis of JZJ-5 CubeSat

JZJ-5 is a 3U commercial CubeSat contracted by Nanjing University of Science and Technology. This paper first introduces the thermal control design of the CubeSat, then calculates the temperature field in the high and low temperature conditions by using the finite element method, and finally compares the measured temperature data in orbit with the thermal simulation data. The data results show that the temperature state of the CubeSat in orbit meets the requirements of thermal design, and the thermal control design scheme and simulation model are reasonable.

Thermal control design and verification of extra-wide field-of-view camera for GF-6 satellite

Thermal control design and verification of extra-wide field-of-view camera for GF-6 satellite

Thermal control design and flight test of a satellite-borne cryogenic optical system

Thermal control design and flight test of a satellite-borne cryogenic optical system

Design and simulation of hybrid thermal energy storage control for photovoltaic fuel cells

In order to meet the demand of stable and continuous household electricity con?sumption, the author proposes the modelling and simulation of photovoltaic fuel cell hybrid power generation system. The system is composed of photovoltaic power generation device, fuel cell/super capacitor, electrolytic cell, hydrogen storage device and power regulation unit. As photovoltaic power generation is affected by sunshine changes, the combination of fuel cells and super capacitors with photo?voltaic devices can ensure the stability and reliability of power supply of hybrid power generation system. Taking sunshine intensity and household electricity consumption in a certain area as an example, the system is simulated in MATLAB/SIM?ULINK software. The results show that: At 08:30-17:00, the output power of the fuel cell is almost zero. This is because the electric energy output by the photovoltaic power generation system can basically meet the power demand of users during this period. At 00:00-6:00 and 18:30-24:00, the sunlight intensity is zero, and the power output of the photovoltaic power generation system is zero, at this time, the user?s electricity is completely supplied by the fuel cell. The investment cost of 1 kW fuel cell is about 45258.4 yuan, and that of 1 kW ordinary battery is about 15200 yuan, the investment cost of fuel cell is still high. In conclusion, the hybrid power generation system can meet the demand of ordinary household electricity.

Computational Optimization of Functionally Graded Electrodes for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) are widely considered to be an ideal power source across a range of industries in the near future due to their high efficiency, high power density, and fuel flexibility. However, for widespread usage of SOFCs to be feasible, certain disadvantages, such as their high operating temperature, electrochemical losses, and high cost of manufacturing, must be solved. In particular, the field of materials research occupies a unique position of being able to quickly and simultaneously solve many of these issues through the development of material compositions and structures that do not currently exist in the industry. Especially relevant to solid oxide fuel cells in particular, is the impact that the electrodes’ geometries and compositions have on the operating performance. The electrodes’ ability to quickly move reactants to the interface of the electrolyte and remove products to the bulk flow comes into play as the fuel cell operates at higher current densities and concentration losses become prominent. Therefore, the microstructures present throughout the electrodes’ depth plays a vital role in improving overall cell performance. However, current fuel cell research has not yet effectively captured and defined the connections of the microstructure parameters and measured their impact on cell behavior. Additionally, homogeneous electrode design and implementation have dominated the research and commercial space thus far. The technique of functional material grading, which has begun to see wide research and commercial usage for such problems as acoustic impedance matching, thermal control, and mechanical design will be leveraged for the enhancement of SOFC electrodes. Functionally graded electrodes have been used in solid oxide fuel cell research in recent years in an effort to improve the cell performance by altering the microstructure including porosity, particle size, and composition of electronic and ionic conductors near the triple phase boundary region. Normally the functional grading process adds additional fabrication steps making it less desirable as an optimization process and easy manufacturing method. However, by using an additive manufacturing process it eliminates the need for multiple discrete graded layers to be deposited to obtain a graded electrode functional layer. This study seeks to explore the correlations of geometry and structure parameters from the meso-scale through to the micro-scale level, together with mass transfer, ionic and electronic transport, and gas-surface electrochemical reactions inside the electrodes to guide future additive manufacturing of SOFCs. Outlined is the development of an effective medium model for simulating the performance of fuel cell microstructures as a function of specific operating ranges in temperature, pressure, and in fuels used. Smooth and continuous linear and nonlinear functional gradation profiles of porosity and material composition are studied within the framework of an effective medium boundary value problem where the electrochemical relations, such as the Butler-Volmer equation, percolating conduction paths, and gas diffusion are solved using the finite difference method. The form of these relations for homogeneous electrodes was analyzed by Costamagna, et. al [1], who also defined outstanding problems with regards to optimizing SOFC electrodes [2]. Globally optimal linear and nonlinear gradation profiles and cell parameters are derived as a function of particle sizes, ratio of conductivities, and desired operating conditions and scored based on their reduction of cell overpotentials.[1] Costamagna, P., P. Costa, and V. Antonucci, Micro-modelling of solid oxide fuel cell electrodes. Electrochimica Acta, 1998. 43(3-4), pp.375-394.[2] Costamagna, P., P. Costa, and E. Arato, Some more considerations on the optimization of cermet solid oxide fuel cell electrodes. Electrochimica Acta, 1998. 43(8), pp.967-972. Figure 1

Passive thermal control design and analysis of a university-class satellite

This paper describes the passive thermal control analysis and design for a small satellite in low Earth orbit. The main objective of the thermal control system is to guarantee the proper operation against the harsh environment in space.The European Student Earth Orbiter satellite was chosen to carry out this study. The paper introduces an alternative means for the thermal control system to be passive by using tapes, coatings, radiators, and multi-layer insulation applied to the satellite to control radiation heat exchange between the satellite and its environment. For this purpose, a finite-difference model was developed using a commercial software package. Results obtained from the simulations were introduced, analyzed, and partially verified for both extreme hot and cold cases.The results show that all the components inside the satellite, structural, and solar panels were within their temperature limits. The most critical components in the hot case are the battery and gyro box with temperature safety margins of 1.83 °C and 2.47 ℃, respectively. The most critical components in the cold case are reaction wheel 2 and uCAM with temperature safety margins of 4.62 ℃ and 4.73 ℃, respectively. The battery on panel 6 has a temperature safety margin of 6.64 ℃.

Optimization method of the thermal control index of space remote sensors based on force-thermal coupling algorithm

To ensure the successful completion of space observation tasks, the temperatures of optical remote sensors must be maintained within appropriate ranges using thermal control systems to avoid the influence of the space thermal environment on imaging performance. In engineering, an appropriate temperature range must be accurately predicted for a remote sensor in orbit through a reasonable thermal control index to guide the design and optimization of the thermal control system. This study analyzes the environmental differences between systems in space and on Earth, calculates the temperature requirements of the imaging performance index as a constraint, investigates the coupling influence mechanism of gravity release and temperature change on system imaging performance, and proposes a method to optimize the thermal control index of a remote sensor. The proposed method can optimize the thermal control design to obtain sufficientimaging performance in orbit, reduce the thermal control power consumption by approximately 20%, and shorten the development cycle; it is also suitable for various types of remote sensors. This study verifies the rationality of the method through a combination of an orbital thermal simulation and a thermal vacuum test.