Therapy For Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research Articles

Cannabidiol, a promising therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder and depression. A mini-review

Abstract Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health disorder, manifesting in people who have endured traumatic events like violence, war, natural disasters, accidents, or other life-threatening situations. Essentially, PTSD is a chronic and debilitating disorder, significantly impacting mental health and psychosocial well-being, necessitating the exploration of novel treatment approaches. Although conventional therapies like psychotherapy and antidepressants have demonstrated efficacy for certain individuals, their effectiveness is limited for some and minimal for others. Consequently, researchers and clinicians are investigating alternative therapeutic methods for these conditions. Among these emerging treatments, cannabidiol (CBD) has shown promising results. Nevertheless, early studies suggest that CBD might yield positive outcomes in mitigating symptoms related to both depression and PTSD.

Virtual realities, real recoveries: exploring the efficacy of 3MDR therapy for treatment-resistant PTSD.

Exposure-based therapies have shown promise in treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but challenges exist in maintaining patient engagement and finding appropriate stimuli for graded exposure. Virtual reality (VR) technology has been used to enhance exposure therapy, but current software lacks customization and some patients remain treatment-resistant. A novel approach called multimodular motion-assisted memory desensitization and reconsolidation (3MDR) has the potential to solve some of the current limitations of VR-assisted exposure therapy. This study examines the efficacy of 3MDR treatment for individuals with treatment-resistant PTSD through a systematic review of relevant literature and clinical studies. Preliminary findings indicate promise for 3MDR in reducing PTSD symptoms, including emotional regulation and moral injury. However, further research with larger samples and controlled studies is needed to understand underlying mechanisms and validate these results. Moreover, this study highlights the importance of health-economic evaluations to assess costs and resource utilization associated with implementing 3MDR treatment in clinical services.

Spaced conditioned stimulus presentation facilitates the extinction of strong fear memory in mice

Inducing fear memory extinction by re-presenting a conditioned stimulus (CS) is the foundation of exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Investigating differences in the ability of different CS presentation patterns to induce extinction learning is crucial for improving this type of therapy. Using a trace fear conditioning paradigm in mice, we demonstrate that spaced presentation of the CS facilitated the extinction of a strong fear memory to a greater extent than continuous CS presentation. These results lay the groundwork for developing more effective exposure therapy techniques for PTSD.

MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD

MDMA is a potential novel treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Our goal is to review current knowledge on MDMA and its use in MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD. Literature searches were done on PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar and references reviewed in identified articles. MDMA-assisted therapy for PTSD usually consists of a few preparatory sessions before two or three sessions where one or two oral doses of MDMA are given along with supportive psychotherapy. The therapy is delivered in the presence of two therapists for about eight hours each time. In addition, the patient receives up to 9 integrative sessions in due course. This use of MDMA as a part of psychotherapy for PTSD is proposed to lessen the psychological distress that often arises in the processing of traumatic events to facilitate the treatment process and reduce the risk of drop-out. Recent studies indicate that MDMA-assisted psychotherapy reduces PTSD symptoms and is generally well tolerated. These studies are necessary if this MDMA-assisted treatment is to be approved by licensing authorities. There is an urgent need for new effective treatments for PTSD and for comparisons between this MDMA-assisted psychotherapy and currently approved psychotherapies with and without MDMA-use.

The importance of Neuro-Cognitive Processing to the Understanding and Treatment of Child PTSD

Abstract Basic research and current clinical practice have revealed the difficulty in separating/connecting cognition and emotion and their respective localizations in the brain. Regarding Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), emotions (usually fear) cause a cascade of symptoms, including those impacting several cognitive processes. And it is often considered that relieving the emotional upset associated with PTSD will also improve related cognitive functioning. While it is often assumed that the relationship of emotion, cognition and PTSD is unidirectional, this may not necessarily be the case. The present article aims to describe the complex relationship between emotion and cognitive processes in those with PTSD and suggests an important role for executive functioning as a modulator of the emotion/cognition relationship, as well as the latter’s importance as a contributor to the successful treatment of PTSD. The paper concludes by stressing the importance of assessing cognitive processes in standard treatment protocols evaluating patients with PTSD and highlights the potential benefits of training executive functions as part of PTSD therapy. Keywords: PTSD, Cognitive processes, Emotion, Executive function, Neuropsychology.

Severe PTSD is marked by reduced oxytocin and elevated vasopressin

Neuroendocrine analyses of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have generally focused on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis alterations. In the present analyses, we examine two additional neuroendocrine factors that have been previously implicated in biological stress responses: oxytocin (OT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP). Here we examined basal neuropeptide status in military veterans clinically diagnosed with PTSD (n = 29) and in two non-traumatized comparison groups with previous stress exposure (n = 11 SWAT trainees and n = 21 ultramarathon runners). PTSD patients showed low levels of plasma OT and high levels of AVP. The ratio of AVP/OT robustly related to PTSD status, and emerged as a statistically plausible mediator of relationships between the number of personal traumatic experiences and subsequent PTSD symptom burden. Over the course of behavioral therapy for PTSD, measures of OT showed a significant but modest normalization. Plasma cortisol levels were not statistically different among the three groups. This study suggests that AVP/OT ratios may represent a neuroendocrine predictor of severe PTSD, as well as a potential treatment response biomarker.

Revisiting Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing Therapy for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review and Discussion of the American Psychological Association's 2017 Recommendations.

This literature review evaluates the efficacy and clinical applications of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The review highlights the effectiveness of EMDR in reducing PTSD symptoms and explores variations in treatment protocols, populations studied, and outcome measures. We conducted systematic searches of multiple databases, supplemented with manual searches and reference list exploration. The inclusion criteria focused on English-language studies published between January 2000 and June 2023, with a specific emphasis on adult psychiatric patients with PTSD receiving EMDR treatment. The review utilized Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines for narrative literature reviews. Out of 867 identified studies, 16 met the eligibility criteria. Most studies found that EMDR was superior in relieving PTSD when compared to controls. Eleven of the 16 selected studies demonstrated improvement in PTSD symptoms. An additional three studies noted an improvement in PTSD symptoms when compared to their waitlist control counterparts. One study found EMDR superior in combating depressive symptoms when compared to rapid eye movement desensitization. EMDR therapy is an appropriate treatment for PTSD. Although some studies compared to waitlist controls, and others have a small number of participants, the data supports the use of EMDR for PTSD. Future studies are needed to continue to better understand the mechanism and application in different populations.

A conceptual framework for a neurophysiological basis of art therapy for PTSD.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a heterogeneous condition that affects many civilians and military service members. Lack of engagement, high dropout rate, and variable response to psychotherapy necessitates more compelling and accessible treatment options that are based on sound neuroscientific evidence-informed decision-making. Art therapy incorporates elements proven to be effective in psychotherapy, such as exposure, making it a potentially valuable treatment option. This conceptual paper aims to inform the neurophysiological rationale for the use of art therapy as a therapeutic approach for individuals with PTSD. A narrative synthesis was conducted using literature review of empirical research on the neurophysiological effects of art therapy, with supporting literature on neuroaesthetics and psychotherapies to identify art therapy factors most pertinent for PTSD. Findings were synthesized through a proposed framework based on the triple network model considering the network-based dysfunctions due to PTSD. Art therapy's active components, such as concretization and metaphor, active art engagement, emotion processing and regulation, perspective taking and reframing, and therapeutic alliance, may improve symptoms of PTSD and prompt adaptive brain functioning. Given the scarcity of rigorous studies on art therapy's effectiveness and mechanisms of alleviating PTSD symptoms, the suggested framework offers a neurophysiological rationale and a future research agenda to investigate the impact of art therapy as a therapeutic approach for individuals with PTSD.

Using Sensor-Captured Patient-Generated Data to Support Clinical Decision-making in PTSD Therapy

Today, clinicians have limited visibility into the quality of homework exercises that occur outside of the clinical context; however, understanding patient performance in these exercises is essential for guiding patient-centered care. To address this, we present the Clinician Homework Review (CHR), a unique measure and interface that displays similarity ratings calculated using sensor-captured patient-generated data (sPGD; i.e. heart rate, phone usage, ambient noise, and physical activity) for therapeutic exercises outside of the clinical setting within the post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) treatment context. Through concept testing sessions with 10 clinicians, we examine how sPGD can be leveraged to measure and investigate what contributes to patient performance in a therapeutic exercise. We also share in-depth information regarding clinician interpretation and planned use of data displayed by CHR in clinical sessions with patients. We frame our results in the context of situated objectivity and propose the notion of "perceived reference weight," which describes the significance attributed to contextualized data. In doing so, we support clinical decision-making in PTSD therapy.

Cognitive processing therapy (CPT) versus individual drug counseling (IDC) for PTSD for veterans with opioid use disorder maintained on buprenorphine.

There are high rates of comorbidity between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and opioid use disorder (OUD). Evidence-based trauma-focused psychotherapies such as Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) are a first-line treatment for PTSD. Veterans with OUD are treated primarily in substance use disorder (SUD) clinics where the standard of care is drug counseling; they often do not have access to first-line PTSD treatments. This study tested whether CPT can be conducted safely and effectively in veterans with comorbid OUD treated with buprenorphine. This 12-week, 2-site, randomized clinical trial (RCT) included open-label randomization to two groups: (a) CPT versus (b) Individual Drug Counselling (IDC) in veterans with PTSD and comorbid OUD who were maintained on buprenorphine (N = 38). Veterans randomized to either IDC (n = 18) or CPT (n = 20) showed a significant reduction in self-reported PTSD symptoms over time as measured by the PTSD checklist (PCL-5) but there were no treatment group differences; there was some indication that reduction in PTSD symptoms in the CPT group were sustained in contrast to the IDC group. Recruitment was significantly impacted by COVID-19 pandemic, so this study serves as a proof-of-concept pilot study. Veterans with OUD and PTSD can safely and effectively participate in evidence-based therapy for PTSD; further work should confirm that trauma-focused treatment may be more effective in leading to sustained remission of PTSD symptoms than drug counseling. This is the first study to evaluate CPT for PTSD in the context of buprenorphine treatment for OUD.

Design of a randomized clinical trial of brief couple therapy for PTSD augmented with intranasal oxytocin

BackgroundLeveraging military veterans' intimate relationships during treatment has the potential to concurrently improve posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and relationship quality. Cognitive-Behavioral Conjoint Therapy (CBCT) and an 8-session Brief Cognitive-Behavioral Conjoint Therapy (bCBCT) are manualized treatments designed to simultaneously improve PTSD and relationship functioning for couples in which one partner has PTSD. Although efficacious in improving PTSD, the effects of CBCT on relationship satisfaction are small, especially among veterans. Intranasal oxytocin, which targets mechanisms of PTSD and relationship quality, may enhance the efficacy of bCBCT. Method/designThe purpose of this 4-year clinical trial is to compare the outcomes of bCBCT augmented with intranasal oxytocin versus bCBCT plus placebo. We will also explore potential mechanisms of action: self-reported communication skills, empathy, and trust. We will recruit 120 dyads (i.e., veteran with PTSD and their intimate partner) from the VA San Diego Healthcare System. Veterans will be administered 40 international units of oxytocin (n = 60) or placebo (n = 60) 30 min before each of 8 bCBCT sessions delivered via telehealth. Clinical and functioning outcomes will be assessed at five timepoints (baseline, mid-treatment, post-treatment, and 3- and 6-month follow-up). ConclusionStudy findings will reveal the efficacy of oxytocin-assisted brief couple therapy for PTSD, which could serve as highly scalable option for couples coping with PTSD, as well as provide preliminary evidence of interpersonal mechanisms of change.ClinicalTrials.govIdentifier:NCT06194851

Cognitive–behavioural conjoint therapy versus prolonged exposure for PTSD in military service members and veterans: results and lessons from a randomized controlled trial

ABSTRACT Background: Military personnel and veterans are at heightened risk for exposure to traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), as well as intimate relationship problems associated with PTSD. Objective: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relative efficacy of CBCT and PE in improving intimate relationship functioning in active duty military personnel or veterans and their intimate partners; both conditions were hypothesized to significantly improve PTSD. Method: In this study, 32 military service members or veterans with PTSD and their intimate partners were randomized to receive either Cognitive–Behavioral Conjoint Therapy for PTSD (n = 15; CBCT; [Monson, C. M., & Fredman, S. J. (2012). Cognitive-behavioral conjoint therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: Harnessing the healing power of relationships. Guilford]), a trauma-focused couple therapy, or Prolonged Exposure (n = 17; PE; [Foa, E. B., Hembree, E. A., Dancu, C. V., Peterson, A. L., Cigrang, J. A., & Riggs, D. S. (2008). Prolonged exposure treatment for combat-related stress disorders – provider’s treatment manual [unpublished]. Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania]), a front-line evidence-based individual treatment for PTSD. Results: There were significant challenges with recruitment and a significant difference in dropout from treatment for the two therapies (65% for PE; 27% for CBCT). Treatment dropout was differentially related to pre-treatment relationship functioning; those with below average relationship functioning had higher dropout in PE compared with CBCT, whereas those with above average relationship functioning did not show differential dropout. In general, CBCT led to relational improvements, but this was not consistently found in PE. Clinician- and self-reported PTSD symptoms improved with both treatments. Conclusions: This study is the first to test a couple or family therapy against a well-established, front-line recommended treatment for PTSD, with expected superiority of CBCT over PE on relationship outcomes. Lessons learned in trial design, including considerations of equipoise, and the effects of differential dropout on trial analyses are discussed. This trial provides further support for the efficacy of CBCT in the treatment of PTSD and enhancement of intimate relationships.

An examination of the potential core symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder: What is integral after removing general psychopathology & distress?

Many confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) have examined the structure of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) with some suggesting increased complexity (i.e., 6+ factors), while others suggesting a more refined structure (i.e., 2-factors). These competing PTSD structures may be due to conflation of non-trauma specific symptoms that have been added overtime. However, none of these studies examined if all symptoms being examined are specific to PTSD or potentially more related to general distress and psychopathology. The current study re-evaluated the structure of PTSD using bifactor exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to identify the construct's core symptoms. Data for EFA models were taken from a sample of Veterans (N = 694) attending outpatient therapy for PTSD and were cross-validated using CFA in a sample of 297 Veterans attending residential treatment. Clinician Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5) at pre-treatment was used across sample. Factor analyses resulted in a 2-factor, bifactor model comprised of eight total items. Model fit was robust, RMSEA = 0 [0.000, 0.036]; robust CFI = 1; robust TLI = 1.017. The bifactor analytic approach captured what might be the core structure of PTSD, which were pathognomonic symptoms of PTSD (Factor one). A distinct second factor related to depression was also found. In identifying this structure, the model eliminates redundancies and lesser performing items and differentiates depressive reactions as potentially distinct and separate. Overall, these findings may assist in future research of PTSD by determining the unique elements of the construct within a veteran sample versus associated features, general psychological distress, and comorbid psychopathology.

Beyond exposure: A healthy broadening of posttraumatic stress disorder treatment options: Commentary on Rubenstein et al. (2024).

This commentary on Rubenstein et al. (2024) applauds their sensitive historical exploration of exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and balanced review of the strengths and weaknesses of that approach. I offer five points to expand on their contribution. (a) Stringent exposure therapy workforce requirements limit scalability, thus restricting access for the large number of patients in need of PTSD treatment. (b) There are additional non-trauma-focused approaches that show efficacy for PTSD. (c) Results of exposure therapy trials should be interpreted in light of how much the study designs align with real-world conditions. (d) Some surprising results from the subfield of PTSD/substance use disorder could suggest new treatment options. (e) There is a need for stronger reporting of clinical worsening (iatrogenesis) outside of clinical trials. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Pretreatment relationship characteristics predict outcomes from an uncontrolled trial of intensive, multicouple group PTSD treatment.

Cognitive behavioral conjoint therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder (CBCT for PTSD; Monson & Fredman, 2012) is associated with improvements in patients' and partners' mental health and relationship satisfaction. Some pretreatment relationship characteristics have predicted CBCT for PTSD outcomes for patients, but findings were limited to a single community sample consisting primarily of female patients with male partners. A better understanding of whether pretreatment relationship characteristics predict outcomes in other patient populations and whether there are partners who may be particularly responsive to couple therapy for PTSD could optimize treatment matching. This study investigated whether pretreatment partner accommodation and relationship satisfaction predicted patient and partner treatment outcomes from an uncontrolled trial of an abbreviated, intensive, multicouple group version of CBCT for PTSD conducted with 24 active-duty military or veteran couples (96% male patients/female partners). In general, changes in patients' PTSD and comorbid symptoms and relationship satisfaction did not vary by pretreatment partner accommodation or patients' own pretreatment relationship satisfaction. In contrast, pretreatment relationship characteristics predicted partner outcomes. Partners who engaged in higher levels of accommodation pretreatment and partners who reported lower levels of pretreatment relationship satisfaction experienced greater declines in psychological distress following treatment. Also, partners who began the study relationally distressed exhibited significant increases in relationship satisfaction following treatment, whereas those who were not relationally distressed did not. Findings suggest that improvements generally do not vary by pretreatment relationship characteristics for patients, whereas partners who begin treatment with elevated relationship risk factors may be especially likely to experience improvement across outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Cost-effectiveness of therapist-assisted internet-delivered psychological therapies for PTSD differing in trauma focus in England: an economic evaluation based on the STOP-PTSD trial

Although there are effective psychological treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), they remain inaccessible for many people. Digitally enabled therapy is a way to overcome this problem; however, there is little evidence on which forms of these therapies are most cost effective in PTSD. We aimed to assess the cost-effectiveness of the STOP-PTSD trial, which evaluated two therapist-assisted, internet-delivered cognitive behavioural therapies: cognitive therapy for PTSD (iCT-PTSD) and a programme focusing on stress management (iStress-PTSD). In this health economic evaluation, we used data from the STOP-PTSD trial (n=217), a single-blind, randomised controlled trial, to compare iCT-PTSD and iStress-PTSD in terms of resource use and health outcomes. In the trial, participants (aged ≥18 years) who met DSM-5 criteria for PTSD were recruited from primary care therapy services in South East England. The interventions were delivered online with therapist support for the first 12 weeks, and three telephone calls over the next 3 months. Participants completed questionnaires on symptoms, wellbeing, quality of life, and resource use at baseline, 13 weeks, 26 weeks, and 39 weeks after randomisation. We used a cost-effectiveness analysis to assess cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY) at 39 weeks post-randomisation, from the perspective of the English National Health Service (NHS) and personal social services and on the basis of intention-to-treat for complete cases. Treatment modules and the platform design were developed with extensive input from service users: service users also advised on the trial protocol and methods, including the health economic measures. This is a pre-planned analysis of the STOP-PTSD trial; the trial was registered prospectively on the ISRCTN Registry (ISRCTN16806208). NHS costs were similar across treatment groups, but clinical outcomes were superior for iCT-PTSD compared with iStress-PTSD. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for NHS costs and personal social services was estimated as £1921 per QALY. iCT-PTSD had an estimated 91·6% chance of being cost effective at the £20 000 per QALY threshold. From the societal perspective, iCT-PTSD was cost saving compared with iStress-PTSD. iCT-PTSD is a cost-effective form of therapist-assisted, internet-delivered psychological therapy relative to iStress-PTSD, and it could be considered for clinical implementation. Wellcome Trust and National Institute of Health Research Oxford Health Biomedical Research Centre.

Islamic Coping, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Islam Oriented Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (IO-TF-CBT) in Post-Kahramanmaraş Earthquake Period

The Great Southeast Turkey Earthquakes (GSTE) of February 2023 were not only a physical disaster but also seem to have triggered the onset of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) among survivors in Kahramanmaraş and surrounding areas. This review emphasizes the need for culturally appropriate clinical interventions in PTSD therapies, addressing the psychological impacts left by the earthquakes. The Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) models implemented after the 1999 Marmara earthquake failed to integrate cultural and Islamic thoughts effectively. With this critical perspective, the article advocates for a holistic healing process that integrates Islamic coping mechanisms with clinical psychology. The importance of religious and spiritual practices in PTSD recovery, especially reliance on Allah, patience, the concept of ummah, prayer, almsgiving, and belief in destiny, is highlighted. While analyzing the potential effectiveness of Islamic approaches in PTSD rehabilitation, the study criticizes the inadequacies of current clinical practices and advocates for the adoption of faith-integrated therapeutic strategies. It proposes a structured methodology for Islamic-Oriented TF-CBT that integrates spiritual practices with scientifically supported psychological interventions, highlighting the gaps in current practices. The aim is to bridge the gap between Islamic practices and clinical psychology, offering a treatment approach compatible with the religious values and traditions of the Muslim population affected by the GSTE. This critical perspective strengthens the call for progress towards cultural competency in mental health services, ensuring that PTSD treatments adapt to the diversity and complexity of earthquake victims. The article emphasizes the need to comprehensively address the psychological needs of individuals affected by the GSTE, particularly those battling PTSD. Recognizing PTSD as not only an individual disorder but also a societal issue, the study suggests that treatment processes should consider not only the individual but also the community. The importance of community-based interventions is highlighted, discussing the current shortcomings and areas for development in this field. In conclusion, the article underscores the significance of cultural sensitivity and community-based approaches in PTSD treatment, calling for more research and implementation in this area.

Case report: the addition of olfaction to virtual reality enhanced exposure therapy for PTSD

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occurs in approximately 20% of individuals following exposure to a potentially traumatic event. Re-experiencing in the form of intrusive memories is a hallmark feature, and often includes sensory elements, including odor. A small body of studies have examined the relationship between PTSD and odor evoked memories. Patients avoid smells that remind them of their traumatic event, and odors are known triggers for intrusive memories and distress. PTSD is associated with higher ratings of odor intensity and unpleasantness however accuracy of odor detection is often impaired. It has been suggested that adding trauma-related odors will enhance treatment, however little data exists. This case study illustrates the addition of trauma specific olfaction in Virtual Reality (VR) enhanced exposure therapy for combat related PTSD. Treatment was successful, the patient no longer met criteria for PTSD at the end of treatment, and self-report symptoms scores indicated clinically significant reductions. The patient indicated at the end of treatment that he would not have been helped had the therapy not used VR, and the addition of odors helped him process the traumatic memories. Future research should assess the addition of olfaction in a systematic way, in order to assess its specific impact in the effectiveness of PTSD treatment.

Heart rate reactivity during trauma recall as a predictor of treatment outcome in cognitive processing therapy for PTSD

Emotional engagement when recollecting a trauma memory is considered a key element of effective trauma-focused therapy. Research has shown that reduced physiological reactivity during trauma recall is associated with worse treatment outcomes for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but this has yet to be examined in a cognitively oriented treatment. This study examined whether pretreatment heart rate (HR) reactivity during trauma recall predicts PTSD symptom improvement and treatment dropout during Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) for PTSD. Participants were 142 women with PTSD secondary to interpersonal violence enrolled in one of two clinicals trials. HR reactivity reflected the mean increase in HR after listening to two 30-s scripts of the trauma memory prior to treatment. Linear mixed-effects models showed the effect of HR reactivity on change in total PTSD symptoms was not significant, but lower HR reactivity predicted less improvement in reexperiencing and avoidance and was associated with increased dropout. Findings suggest pretreatment physiological reactivity to the trauma memory may be a prognostic indicator of some elements of treatment response in CPT. Results tentatively support the importance of emotional activation during trauma recall in cognitive treatment of PTSD, though more research is needed to clarify how low HR reactivity impacts treatment.

Considerations in adapting cognitive-behavioral conjoint therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder to a family setting.

Considerations in adapting cognitive-behavioral conjoint therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder to a family setting.